Psychosocial theory and human development

Erik Erikson & Post-Freudian Theory

The different theories of famous psychologists Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson have been used to interpret and analyze certain characteristics and human behavior. Present day psychology research and studies utilize the theories of Erik Erikson in their attempts to analyze and explain human behavior. The theory of personality development as introduced by Erik Erikson followed the post-Freudian theory of human development in eight stages. The eighth stages consisted of stages where behaviors built on the behaviors learned or acquired in the previous stage. Erikson's eight stages were: 1) trust vs. mistrust, 2) autonomy vs. shame and doubt, 3) initiative vs. guilt, 4) industry vs. inferiority, 5) identity vs. role confusion, 6) intimacy vs. isolation, 7) work and parenthood, and 8) integrity vs. despair.

Introduction

The different theories of famous psychologists Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson have been used to interpret and analyze certain characteristics and human behavior. Present day psychology research and studies utilize the theories of Erik Erikson in their attempts to analyze and explain human behavior. Similar to Erikson's theory, Freud's theory is also a clinical theory, although it is much more complex than the theories and research that followed Freud. According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of our motivations, whether they are simple desires for food or sex, neurotic compulsions, or the motives of an artist or scientist. According to Freudian principles, we are often driven to deny or resist becoming conscious of these motives, and they are often available to us only in disguised form. In other words, Freud saw all human behavior as motivated by the drives or instincts, which in turn are the neurological representations of physical needs. This paper will present Erikson's theory of personality under his eight stages of human development, that followed and was based in part on, Freudian theory.

Freud's Theory of Personality

According to Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five, during the period in which early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. A review of the literature indicates that Freud's theory of personality development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. According to Freud, personality developed through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior (Wagner, 2007). If the stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation, or a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage, occurs. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage (Wagner, 2007). For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating (Wagner, 2007). Freud's theory became widely controversial as a result of open, unanswered questions that were difficult to test scientifically. His theory was also problematic to the researchers that followed his work because his theory focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development.

The researchers that followed Freud, such as Erik Erikson, based their theories on his work and ideas, but looked past the controversies presented in Freudian theory. For example, Freud's theories were difficult to test scientifically, and concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and thus unable to test. A review of the literature indicates that research studies that followed Freud's work tend to discredit Freud's theory. Erikson based his theory on Freud's, but took into consideration the fact that Freud's future predictions were too vague. According to his research, the length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables. In addition, Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research, and Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children (Wagner, 2007). Erikson's theory is based on the ideology of different stages of early childhood development, but unlike Freud's work, Erikson actually conducted thousands of studies on actual children. Thus, Erikson's work was based on Freud's but sought to overcome the many criticisms of Freud's "untestable" theory through actual case studies of children.

Erikson's Theory of Personality

Erikson's work followed Freud's, and Erikson's theory has been labeled as a "post-Freudian" theory that utilizes eight stages of human development. Even in his early work, Erikson was fascinated by children, their patterns of thought and the reasons for the actions they chose. Erikson studied thousands of children throughout his work, in an attempt to explain the development of personality and other human characteristics. One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction (Erikson, 1950). According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions (Erikson, 1950). Similar to Freud's theory, Erikson also outlined different stages that each individual passes through in early childhood that assists in the development of their long-term characteristics. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life; if the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery (Erikson, 1950). However, if the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy (Erikson, 1950).

Erikson's stages of childhood development were based on the idea that each individual experience a conflict at some point, and this conflict serves as a turning point in development. According to Erikson, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. Erikson's socialization process consisted of eight stages that were formulated through a wide range of experience in psychotherapy, including extensive experience with children and adolescents from all different kinds of backgrounds. Erikson studied children from upper and middle social classes, as well as children from very poor families and backgrounds. All of his case studies were documented analyzations of children's behavior and thoughts, and the compilation of his work created different stages of development. Erikson regarded each of his stages as a psychosocial crisis, which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated. Erikson's stages build on the stage preceding each particular stage. In other words, satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily.

Erikson's Eight Stages of Development

Erikson's first stage of development is the trust vs. mistrust stage that occurs during the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. In this stage, if the child is not taken care of well, loved and nurtured, the child becomes insecure and mistrustful. Since the child at this stage is an infant completely dependent, on his parents or caregivers, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's parents or caregivers. This stage is important because if a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world; failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. At this stage feelings are important, and event he very young infant can detect the feelings that are portrayed toward him and others, and at this point his early ability to feel and care about others develops.

The second stage of development is learning autonomy vs. shame, which occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months or 2 years and 31/2 to 4 years of age. In this second stage, the child develops a greater sense of personal control. This stage is modeled after one of Freud's stages, where Freud believed that toilet training was an important part of this stage of development. However, although Erikson agreed with Freud on the aspect of toilet training, Erikson's reasons were different then that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. According to Erikson, other important events in this stage include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Like Freud, Erikson believed that children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. The child that receives nurture and support from his parents at this stage becomes proud rather than ashamed. This assurance of self-possession and independence follows tantrums and other types of negative behavior.

Erikson's third stage is the initiative vs. guilt stage, that occurs in the preschool years, where the child is about 31/2 to 51/2 years old. During this stage the child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow (Wagner, 2007). Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination (Wagner, 2007). During these years, the preschool aged child begins to assert his power and control over the world. Children that are successful at this stage feel capable and are able to lead others. In this stage exploration is very important, and the well-adjusted and treated child begins to explore his surroundings without any feelings of fear or uncertainty. This stage builds on the previous one because the child uses the skills such as confidence and independence in the application of being able to securely explore the world around him.

Erikson's for the stage is described as the industry vs. The inferiority or competence stage. Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. In this stage the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic (Wagner, 2007). In this stage, through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

Also at this stage, homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious (Wagner, 2007). However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future, and this shame and guilt ridden child will experience defeat and inferiority. In this stage school and school processes are important events because the child needs to cope with new social and academic demands that did not exist prior. If the child is able to socially interact with others well, the child has adjusted well to this stage. However, if the child has difficulty in meeting the new academic demands, such as learning basic things in school, the child emerges with shame and guilt and feels inferior to others in his school classroom.

Erikson's fifth stage is the learning identity vs. diffusion stage that occurs in adolescence, where the child is about 13 or 14 years old until they are around 20 years old. This stage differs greatly from the prior four stages, where the well taken care of and nurtured child adapts quickly to each stage and emerges as a capable child after each stage. In this fifth stage, even the well-adjusted of adolescent experiences some role identity diffusion, such as delinquency, rebellion and insecurity or doubts. According to Erikson, during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt (Erikson, 1950). The adolescent comes to experiment with different, although usually constructive, roles rather than adopting a negative behavior, such as delinquent acts.

In Erikson's fifth stage, the adolescent anticipates achievement, and accomplishments. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity, such as manhood or womanhood, is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent) (Wagner, 2007). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper-class American children (Wagner, 2007). They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them (Wagner, 2007). In this stage social relationships with others are very important events, because teenagers need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. In this stage, success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while at the same time failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self

Erikson's sixth stage is called the learning intimacy vs. isolation stage, which occurs when the young adult is capable of experiencing true intimacy, such as a strong friendship or successful marriage. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. According to Erikson, this stage was very important because it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. In addition, those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure. Since each step built on skills learned in previous steps, Erikson believed that those with a poor sense of self tended to have less committed relationships and were more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. In this stage, relationships are important events, and social relationships learned during the preceding stage are built on to form lasting close relationships such as a best friend or husband or wife.

In Erikson's seventh stage, the learning vs. self-absorption stage, the individual's life-capabilities such as marriage, parenthood and productive work roles are included. This stage of development follows early adulthood where individuals focus on their work careers and family life. According to Erikson, those who are successful during this stage will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. On the other hand, those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. At this stage, adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people (Wagner, 2007). Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world (Wagner, 2007).