Formality: Is Inclusion the Answer

¶ … FORMALITY: IS INCLUSION THE ANSWER IN PREPARING SPECIAL-NEEDS STUDENTS FOR LIFE AFTER GRADUATION?

Students with disabilities are all too often graduating high school completely unprepared to function effectively in the real world. The reality is that inclusion many times is characterized merely by the student with disabilities being present in the same general classroom as other students and not equally represented in the receipt of proper educational provisions for learning.

Inclusion however, involves more than a mere representation of students with disabilities in the regular classroom and specifically involves training and education of teachers so that they are effectively enabled to provide inclusion in its' true form in the regular classroom which may include the use of special tools or props and specialized instructional methods geared toward enabling the learning of students with disabilities.

Definition of Terms

Mainstreaming: Mainstreaming is defined as the "participation of children with disabilities in regular education classrooms as appropriate originally conceptualized as for the purpose of activities that are non-academic in nature and in a manner viewed as a visit to the general education classroom in which teachers are not prepared to implement effectively.

Inclusion: Inclusion is defined as the "education of children with disabilities in regular classrooms with support services provided as necessary and to include academic studies in which the students with disabilities are members of the general education classroom an environment that critically requires collaboration.

Students with Disabilities: "A person with a disability is someone with a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. A person is considered to be a person with a disability if he/she has the disability, has a record of the disability, or is regarded as having the disability." (Office of Student Development and Counseling Center, 2006)

Physical Impairment: "Means any physiological disorder or condition, cosmetic disfigurement, or anatomical loss affecting one of more of the following body systems: neurological, musculoskeletal, special sense organs, respiratory (including speech organs), cardiovascular, reproductive, digestive, genito-urinary, hemic and lymphatic, skill and endocrine." (Office of Student Development and Counseling Center, 2006)

Mental Impairment: "Means any psychological disorder, such as mental retardation, organic brain syndrome, emotional or mental illness, and specific learning disorders." (Office of Student Development and Counseling Center, 2006)

Inclusionists: Individuals who support inclusion of special education students in the classroom environment.

Background of the Study

Inclusion of students with disabilities sounds in theory to be a grand scheme by which to further the education of the students with disabilities and in truth, when inclusion is correctly implemented it does just that. However, there are too many instances of inclusion merely translating to students with disabilities being placed in the general education classroom without any of the necessities to actually assist the student with disabilities in their learning acquisition. Block (1999) states in the work entitled: "Did We Jump on the Wrong Bandwagon? Problems with Inclusion in Physical Education" that inclusion is the "the philosophy of merging special and general education and placing all children with disabilities in general education settings..." (p.1) While there have been reports, although limited in nature, that state that inclusion can be successful there are just as many reports that inclusion simply does not always work. (Block, 1999, paraphrased) Block states: "In their zest to promote inclusion, many inclusionists forgot about the child. That is, we were so busy promoting the philosophy, we forgot to look at each child's needs. Focus of attention was solely on placement." (1999, p.1) It is additionally noted by Block (1999) that possibly the greatest problem with inclusion has been the "lack of personnel support." (p.1)

The work of Mamlin (1999) entitled: "Despite Best Intention: When Inclusion Fails" reports a study with the aim of discovering what inclusion looks like and what meaning that inclusion had for participants when inclusion was implemented as part of a district and university restructuring initiative. This initiative was reported to be funded by a grant from the U.S. Department of Education. The focus of this initiative is reported to have been "services and settings for students with disabilities -- especially those served in self-contained settings." (p.43) Mamlin's study reports that inclusion of special education students with general education students was occurring "for a small number of students." (p.43) Findings reported by Mamlin is that little change "in the practices or attitudes of the staff toward special education occurred at Watkins" and that while Watkins did make progress on many key indicators special education at Watkins was viewed as a "separate system, and the idea of collaborating with general education remained foreign to the staff at Watkins." (1999, p.43) Of students who were receiving special education services in Watkins school district "61.8% were segregated for instruction." (Mamlin, 1999, p.45)

Furthermore, while special education teachers were under the expectation that they would "...use the district curriculum and make modification, they seemed to have little access to this curriculum and little guidance in using it." (p.45) Additionally it is stated that students in special education classes "were viewed as qualitatively different from those in general education classes -- precisely the view that advocates of inclusion seek to modify." (Mamlin, 1999, p.45) Mamlin states that likely the "clearest them that emerged from this study was that of leadership. It has been generally acknowledged that effective leadership is important to an organization's ability to change." (Mamlin, 1999, p.47)

Purpose of Study

Students with disabilities are not prepared to enter the real world upon graduation due to the frailty and inherent limitations of what many term to be inclusion but in reality is only a shadow of inclusion as it has been conceptualized in the minds of researchers and studies that have stated support for inclusion as a critical factor in the education of students with special needs in the classroom.

Literature Review

Inclusion of Students and Levels of Disability

The work of Eric W. Carter (2006) entitled: "Including High School Students With Severe Disabilities in General Education Classes: Perspectives of General and Special Educators, Paraprofessionals, and Administrators" published in the journal of Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities" states that the importance of inclusive educational services for students with severe disabilities has received strong articulation from a variety of sources. Despite this support, the adoption of inclusive educational practices in which students with disabilities are full-time members of general education classrooms and provided the appropriate supports, modifications and services necessary to learn -- by schools across the country remains slow, sporadic, and uneven." Carter relates that the majority of students with severe disabilities "spend a limited amount of their school day attending general education classes." (2006) Stated specifically are the statistics as follows indicating the amount of time that students with specific disabilities spend 'outside' of the general education classroom:

Students with multiple disabilities -- 72%

Student with mental retardation -- 58%

Students with Autism -- 60%+ (Carter, 2006)

The majority of students with all types of disabilities were found to be spending the majority of their day outside of the general education classroom. Carter states specifically that practically all benefits which are "…associated with including student's in general education classrooms were rated as substantial…across groups, the most substantial benefit for students with severe disabilities was judged to be "opportunities to interact socially with classmates" (A / = 4.4(>); for general education classmates, "improving attitudes toward students with disabilities" (M = 4.41); and for the respondents themselves" increasing their knowledge about students with disabilities" (, / = 4.07). The benefit item rated as being the least associated with including students in general education classrooms was "improving academic or vocational performance" for general education students (M = 2.96). Significant effects for group were not found on any of the benefit items, suggesting that groups viewed the benefits associated with inclusion similarly." (Carter, 2006)

Carter reports a study that finds that "moderate to substantial barriers were identified by all groups" and that the most prominent among these were "limited time to collaborate, lack of resources and personnel in general education classrooms, and the behavioural challenges exhibited by students with disabilities." (2006) Furthermore, "the ratings of instructional practices also raise questions about the extent to which students enrolled in general education classes are truly accessing the general curriculum. " (Carter, 2006) Educators are stated by Carter to be challenges through recent legislation to "ensure that instruction provided to students with and without disabilities aligns with local and state standards." (Carter, 2006)

Success of Inclusion and Post-Educational Employment

The work of Heal and Rusch (1995) entitled: "Predicting Employment for Students Who Leave Special Education High School Programs" reports a "…hierarchical regression analysis" that included 35 community, family, student and school program characteristics entered in a controlled order and used to assess prediction of employment. Study results demonstrate that personal characteristics (being male and having living and academic skills) predicted whether the individual would be employed following high school graduation. Also contributing to this prediction significantly were factors of family income, proxy for social status, while school programs' effect was minimal when student competence and family characteristics had been controlled statistically. (Heal and Rusch, 1995)

In a separate study entitled: "Improving graduation and employment outcomes of students with disabilities" Predictive factors and student perspectives" Benz, Lindstrom, and Yovanoff (2000) report findings from two studies that examined secondary and transition practices. The first of the two studies made an examination of students factors as well as program factors that served to predict the graduation of participants with a standard high school diploma and placement in employment and continuing education while the second of these studies conducted an examination of the perceptions of participants of the characteristics of the program and staff that they felt were most important in assisting them in achieving their education and transition goals. Benz, Lindstrom, and Yovanoff report that "career-related work experience and completion of student-identified transition goals were highly associated with improved graduation and employment outcomes. Individualization of services around student goals and personalized attention from staff were highly valued by participants." (2000)

The work of Michael Bangser entitled: "Preparing High School Students for Successful Transition to Postsecondary Education and Employment "reports that "transitions "from high school to postsecondary education and employment can be particularly challenging for students with disabilities. Although there has been an increase in postsecondary attendance (especially at community colleges) by students with disabilities, their enrolment rate is still well below that of their peers in the general population. The employment rate of students with disabilities soon after leaving high school also remains well below that of their same-age peers. Moreover, students with disabilities are faced with fragmented services, limited program accessibility, and training that too often focuses on low-paying jobs." (2004) Bangser states that students with disabilities are "…a diverse population with multidimensional needs." (2004) IDEA 2004 makes it a requirement that students who are sixteen years of age or older received "Individualized Education Programs (IEPS) that include appropriate measurable postsecondary goals, based on age-appropriate transition assessments. States are required to report on the "[percent of youth aged 16 and above with an [IEP] that includes coordinated, measurable, annual IEP goals and transition services that will reasonably enable the student to meet postsecondary goals [(20 U.S.C. 1416(a)(3)(B)]." (Bangser, 2004) Specific transitions requirements under IDEA 2004 are the following:

(1) An assessment process that focuses on identifying one or more postsecondary goals for students;

(2) Specification of one or more postsecondary goals in the areas of education/training, employment, and/or independent living, as appropriate;

(3) Specification of one or more annual IEP goals that are directed to assist students to meet their postsecondary goals; and (4) Specification of transition services in the IEP (including instruction, community experiences, and other activities as appropriate) that are designed to facilitate the transition from school to anticipated post school environment(s) and the achievement of postsecondary goals." (Bangser, 2004)

Bangser reports that transition planning for students with disabilities should contain the considerations as follows:

(1) A different postsecondary environment - the high school experience of student should be "gradually adjusted to fit what they will encounter in postsecondary activities. To the extent possible, the transition planning process should reflect an assessment of the postsecondary education or workplace environments that the students will encounter;

(2) Early and active participation by students in transition planning - The transition process should begin early in high school and embody student-focused planning that enables them to participate actively in the process. During the transition process, students should work with a variety of individuals, including psychologists, general and special educators, administrators, counselors, and parents -- and also reflect on their progress during the past year;

(3) Development of self-determination, self-advocacy, and other skills - When students with disabilities enter postsecondary education or employment, they will be expected to play an increased role in identifying necessary supports. This underscores the importance of including the development of self-determination and self-advocacy skills as part of the high school transition planning process. Students with disabilities may also need to develop other educational, employment, and life skills. This should be done in both school-based and community settings and include identification of the accommodations or supports that students will need. Work experience, combined with post school supports, academic skills, social skills, and job search skills, can improve employment outcomes;

(4) Family and community involvement in an inclusive transition planning process - In addition to student participation, the transition planning process should also include parents and other family members, educators representing multiple disciplines, a transition specialist and community stakeholders such as employers with an interest in the transition planning;

(5) A coordinated, collaborative effort among community agencies -. Transition goals are more likely to be achieved when schools and communities build capacity together to serve students' transition needs;

(6) Appropriate use of technology - There should be careful planning for the provision and/or transfer of technology, as needed. The transition process should include identification of funding sources for the technology, as well as timely training for students in the use of the technology. (Bangser, 2004, paraphrased)

The work of Diane Lapp (2004) entitled: "Teaching all the Children" states that graduation rates for students with disabilities "continue to lag well behind the national averages. Lapp states that 57.4% of special education students graduated from high school in the 1990s with diplomas and 29% of special education students dropped out of high school. Lapp states that employment outcomes for individuals with disabilities are "grim…sixty-three percent of people with disabilities were unemployed in 1994-1995…" and a survey conducted among employers reports that 43% of employers surveyed revealed that "attitudes and stereotypes in the workplace about people with disabilities made it difficult for them to hire members of this population." (Lapp, 2004) T

Stages of Transition

The work of Fritz (2004) entitled: "Graduation Considerations for Students with Disabilities" states the guidelines for transition and the different stages of transition of students with disabilities. The following figure contains a listing of these stages of transitions that the following guidelines are applicable to the student with disabilities in terms of their transition planning.

Figure 1

Transition Planning Stages & Descriptions

Source: Fritz (2004)

Best Practices

Best practices identified by Fritz (2004) include those which make the provision of: "…consistency and meaningful decision-making processes regarding graduation that:

(1) Apply to the range of special education students who move from public education and may or may not enter adult services such as those in the Developmental Disabilities System, Behavioural Health System, Vocational Rehabilitation or others; and (2) Reflect a transition planning continuum involving academic, life, social, emancipation and other skill development or preparation in a variety of learning/experiential settings; and (3) Are driven by the importance of: (a) Flexible, individualized, student-centered progress; (b) Maturational, social, life/functional, and/or vocational skills, information, tools and experience; (c) Coordinated, two-way, geographically realistic and early cross-system involvement and information exchange; (d) Positive experience that enhances opportunities for success as a productive community member and minimizes trauma; (e) Student input (wants, interests, concerns and dreams); (e) Multiple perspectives and mutual support for students' benefit; (f) Parent/family input (wants, interests, concerns, dreams and observations); and (g) A planning and decision-making process that fosters more clarity and predictability." (Fritz, 2004)

According to Fritz (2004) the foundation for an exploration that is thorough investigating factors that affect student transition and readiness for graduation are is one that is "consistent with these criteria…"

Inclusion: Necessary Factors for Success

The work of Mamlin (1999) entitled: "Despite Best Intentions: When Inclusion Fails" states that a review of the literature "indicated that numerous factors are necessary for inclusion to have the greatest chance of success" and that three of these factors are identified as: (1) administrator preparation; (2) teamwork among educators; and (3) professional input. The work of McDonnell, McLaughlin, and Morison (2000) entitled: "Educating One & All" states that research has indicated that students with disabilities who "were successful in obtaining and maintaining paid work in the community after they exited high school were those who received ongoing opportunities for direct training in community employment sites throughout their high school careers and obtained a paying job prior to graduation." (McDonnell, McLaughlin, and Morison, 2000)

Effective Preparation Programs

Effective preparation programs for employment of students with disabilities includes those in which: (1) the curriculum reflects the job opportunities available in the local community; (2) training that takes place in actual job sites; (3) training that is designed to sample the individual's performance across a variety of economically viable alternatives; (4) training that provides opportunities for interaction with people without disabilities in a work setting; and (5) training that culminates in a specific job placement. (McDonnell, McLaughlin, and Morison, 2000)

Hypothesis

High school inclusion of special-needs students presents a unique opportunity to either positively or negatively affect the student with disabilities in terms of their entering the real world upon graduation.

Research Questions

The research questions in this study are those stated as follows:

(1) What specific factors in the provision of inclusion in today's classroom specifically relating to students with disabilities best serve to prepare students for entering the real world upon graduation from high school?

(2) What provisions are available in schools and in communities to assist students with disabilities in their transition from high school to the working world?

(3) What 'best practices' have been identified for implementation of inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education classroom.

Design-Methods and Procedures

The methodology that will be utilized in the research proposed herein is qualitative in nature in that it is interpretive and will be conducted through survey/questionnaires and focus group studies in which students, parents and teachers will participate by informing the study undertaken of the specific factors affecting the student with disabilities and their experience of inclusion in the general education classroom. This research will conduct an extensive review of literature in this area of study in addition to the survey/questionnaire and focus group studies proposed for conducted the examination of the data in this specific area of study.

Limitations

The limitation in this study is the brief time in which is allotted for the research study. This study will address this issue and delimitation will involve an extensive review of literature in this study area in what will represent a meta-analysis and synthesis of previous study findings.

Summary

The literature examined in this brief review has indicated that research is needed in the area of study concerning students with disabilities and their transition following graduation from high school into the working world. Therefore the recommendations in this proposal include the recommendation that a more in-depth study be conducted in order to gain more knowledge concerning this transition. Findings in the proposed study will significantly serve to inform educators, parents, and students with disabilities.

Methodology

Instrumentation

This chapter presents the methodology employed in the present study and is specifically in the form of a questionnaire with open-ended questions.

Demographics

The sampling in this study was conducted among participants that attended Memphis public schools in the North area region and specifically are 35 special education students who graduated between May 2006 -- May 2009. The interviews were conducted via telephone for students unable to attend personally for the interview to be administered.

Gender

Male

23

Female

12

Race

Caucasian

2

African-American

27

Hispanic

6

Primary Disability

Specific Learning Disability -- 9

Mental Retarded

17

Functional Delayed

4

Emotional Disability-

3

Hearing Impairment

2

Inclusion Characteristics of Two Inclusion Groups of Participants

21

Participants in this study who were included in full inclusion classrooms with mostly non-disabled peers of mixed age groups one grade level below their own

14

Participants who were in self-contained classes with only one to two inclusion classes

High School Graduation and Diploma Status

12

Students graduated with a SPED Diploma (4 have part-time employment that they found on their own w no continue education plans. All 4 live at home with their parents. Out of the 4, 1 young man is on house arrest he is only allowed to go to work) (2 have full time employment 1 student after she graduated had two kids and living on her own. The other student reported that she lives with her grandparents and the school counselor help her get her job at the Nike factory. She didn't want to go to college and grandparents were okay with her decision. She felt that her math classes really help her in the field that she is in currently.

6 Students graduated with a Regular Diploma (4 of those 6 were in mostly SPED classes not full inclusion. Also out the 4 student who took very few general education classes, reported that they felt that they learned more and was able to pass standardize test with the help of their SPED Teachers and after school tutoring. 2 of the 4 students go to a local community college.

2 Full inclusion students; 1 of these students attends college and play sports and states that he enjoys the company of peers that are different from himself. This participants reports however, that this was a challenge because he would instead of focusing on the instruction provided by the classroom teacher would be consumed by how he was being viewed by others in the classroom and that he became motivated to become a better reader and achieve more academically so that he would not be viewed as a 'slow, special education student'. Another student reports that she still has a great deal of trouble with basic skills and reading and that she is attempting to get into school but has the responsibility of taking care of her younger siblings. This student is seeking employment as well to assist her family financially. This student reported enjoyment from her involvement in general education classes and states that she has learned a lot but that there were times that learning was hard since the inclusion teacher was not always able to assist her since the size of the class was so large and so many students were in need of her help.

Seven (7) students were found to have dropped out of school. (1 in 2006, 2 in 2007, 1 in 2008, and 3 in 2009)