Freud's psychoanalytic theory and object relations development

Freud's Psycho-analysis And Psychoanalytic Object Relation Theory

The Development of Psychopathology

Psychopathology might be defined as the inability of the adult human being to function within his or her social world. Some internal element restrains the ability of such a person to effectively live a productive and happy life. There are a variety of theories with different explanations regarding the fundamental reasons for this. Sigmund Freud for example builds his theory upon the sexual aspect of human development, while the psychoanalytic object relations theory holds that any type of trauma during the early development stages is responsible for this. Both theories therefore to some degree depend upon development to expound their views.

Freud's theory includes two main psychoneuroses: hysteria and obsessional. To explain the abnormal behavior associated with psychopathology, Freud turned to his theories of sexuality, and most importantly how sexuality is repressed. For Freud, then, neurotic symptoms function as substitutes for sexual satisfaction. Hence the patient derives pleasure from these symptoms. Freud's theory connects with that of the object relations view in that he believes that the event causing the neurosis is most likely connected to some early childhood event, which affected the sexual development of the child.

The object relations view in turn focuses on a broader view of child development, which could include a sexual element, but is not based entirely upon how this element affects every other developmental issue. Instead, it is a more holistic view of psychopathology. The traumatic childhood event at the basis of some sort of psychopathology for example could be sexual in nature, such as sexual abuse, but it could also be any other form of abuse or trauma. Whatever form it takes, it results in a negative effect upon the child's development, which halts as a result of the event. The child grows into an adult with a weakened sense of self, who can suffer from any number of disorders, including schizoid, borderline, or narcissist disorders.

Transference

In psychoanalysis, transference is a term used to denote the unconscious redirection of feelings from one target person to another. A person might for example repeat behavior patterns from a past relationship in a present one, where the target of affection is used as an object of transference for previously unresolved feelings.

Those who are subject to transference often transfer their feelings from parents to partners or children. In a negative context, this could mean mistrusting a person who resembles a previous partner in some way, or being overly compliant to a person who is reminiscent of a past relationship to someone who held power over the individual.

In therapy, transference can be used to help the patient overcome past problems that have become a burden in his or her present life and relationships. The therapist does this by analyzing the redirection of the patient's feelings for a specific person to the therapist him- or herself. This transference can take many forms, including erotic attraction, rage, hatred, mistrust, parentification, and so on. The therapist can then use this redirection as a tool for analysis, where the manifest feeling is used to determine the underlying cause for the original tendency to succumb to transference. Often, it is used to reveal unresolved conflicts that date back to the patient's childhood.

Countertransference could also occur where the therapist's feelings are redirected towards a patient. In a counterproductive environment, this could lead to an inappropriate emotional entanglement with the patients. On the other hand, an experienced therapist would be aware of this, and use it as an instrument to understand his or her own need to regulate the therapeutic relationship. In addition, it can promote an understanding of the specific relationship the therapist has with the patient, and how the patient elicits the countertransference.

Frame

The concept of the "frame" in psychoanalysis refers to the boundaries experienced by a person within a certain context. When starting psychoanalysis, for example, an asymmetrical balance of power exists, where the analyst at first has a certain type of power over the person as patient. As such, the person exists within a certain frame of reference, where a condition defines the situation of analysis. The relationship therefore frames the situation, and the patient exists within certain boundaries; where he or she will at first be wary or reluctant to reveal all that could be helpful in the therapeutic context.

In addition to the psychoanalytic situation, the individual also forms psychoanalytic frames within their individual social realities. The aim is to cultivate an understanding of the internal, psychological reality that governs the individual's concept of self and his or her relationship with others. These frames are then used as constructs to be able to handle the reality experienced by the individual.

In some situations, constructed frames of reality could be harmful and in need of therapy. The therapist should then construct a frame towards this end. The frame is a place of safety where the patient should feel free to express his or her own experience of the social and internal world. The therapist's work is then to determine the symbolic nature of the frames that the individual has constructed. During this work, the therapist also constructs his or her own frame towards and understanding of the individual's particular symbolic frames of reference. These can then be used to help the individual construct new, better frames to provide a more realistic view of the world and others, and thus encourage the healing process.

In this way, the psychotherapist can then use frames in order to not only better understand the symbolic psyche of the patient, but also to lead the patient to a better view of the world.

The Process of Working Through

The process of "working through" in the analytic relationship can mean several things. The basic goal of therapy is to work through problematic situations and challenges in order to reach a certain therapeutic goal. For each individual client, this would mean something different, as each client faces a unique set of challenges. The therapist is to identify these challenges and help the client work through them.

Working through can entail an intensely emotional process, such as working through grief. It could also be a cognitively challenging process such as working through transference issues to obtain insight into one's childhood or relationships. Whatever the focus, the process of working through is often a long, intense, and arduous one. The client therefore needs to have a collaborative relationship with the therapist in order to successfully work through his or her issues.

Goal setting is also important in this context. No difficult process will be completed without a focus on a certain goal. The therapist must work with the client to establish goals to be fulfilled at the end of the working through process. The process itself will often be unpleasant; goals will help to mitigate the effects of such unpleasantness. For grief, the goal can for example be the final stage of acceptance and fond memories rather than sleepless nights filled with tears. For a person working through a shadowy part of him- or herself, the goal can be as generic as better self-knowledge and self-management.

Working through must be recognized as a process, but also as a process with a certain goal in mind. To successfully work through any part of the self, it must also be recognized that certain unpleasant elements may be uncovered before the goal is reached. The therapist must be able to help the client adhere to the process.

Stages of Development

According to object relations theory, human development entails a lifelong effort to break away from the dependency established in early childhood in order to reach the adult states of mutuality and exchange. The goal is to break the limitations of dependency in order to reach the autonomy that might be expected from the stage of adulthood. If a person does not break away from these bonds, it leads to psychopathology.

Within the framework of this theory, the process towards the goal of adult autonomy is referred to as separation-individuation. From birth, the infant's first experience of separation-individuation is referred to as "autism" or withdrawal. During the first three years of life, this is followed by symbiosis, which is generally established with the mother or other caregiver. As the child grows to a less dependent state, further separation occurs from the primary caregiver, after which individuation takes place, also from the primary caregiver. After these stages, the chid then achieves "object constancy." This means that the child is able to internalize the primary caregiver and hold the image in his or her memory. At this stage, identity formation also takes place, which means a blueprint is formed for the identity or personality of the individual the child is to become. The healthy formation of object constancy and identity are vital for healthy functioning later in life.

This theory focuses upon the general functioning of the human being in relationships with "objects" or others. As the childe matures, object constancy and identity continue to strengthen and works along with the separation and individuation processes to provide the growing child with a sense of self as separate from others, but also in relationship with others.

The model proposed by the object relations theory is much more focused upon the development of mental processes than processes that relate to the body. Of course sexual functioning does play a role in cases of sexual abuse, where it could lead to trauma and the halt of development. However, it is primarily a mental model. Freud, on the other hand, uses sexual processes to describe the development stages of the child. From birth to 1 or 2 years old, the child for example focuses upon the mouth as erogenous zone. The physical relationship with the primary caregiver is primarily oral as well. The child derives pleasure from suckling, and also explores his or her environment by chewing and tasting items. The ego and body also develop during this stage.

The second stage, from 1-3 years, is anal, where bowel and bladder elimination are the primary physical concerns of the child. Here toilet training features primarily in the child's physical as well as ego development.

From 3-6 years old, the child's development is the phallic stage, where boys potentially develop the Oedipus complex and girls the Electra complex. The Electra complex did not originate with Freud, but was added only later by Jung. During this stage, the genitals become the primary erogenous zone, although gratification does not take the form of adult sexuality. Children however become increasingly aware of their own bodies, those of other children, and those of their parents as well. This is derived from Freud's observations of children who play "doctor" with each other or asking their parents about their genitals.

Freud's theories therefore appear to focus excessively upon the physical and sexual. As psychoanalysis was in its infancy at the time, one might understand this paradigm based on the fact that Freud could only comment on what he could see. Naturally he related his observations to the physical; not yet having the equipment or knowledge to examine the mental processes behind physical behavior. Nevertheless, both theories contribute significantly to the general understanding of human development.