Gender and Sexuality New Criticism:

Gender and Sexuality

New Criticism: Gender and Sexuality in Aristophanes' Lysistrata

Aristophanes' Lysistrata is one of the eleven plays penned by the playwright that has survived over time. The original performance of this production occurred in classical Athens reportedly in 411 BC

Lysistrata is considered a comedy; an account of one woman's unique goal and desire to end the Peloponnesian War. During the course of the play, Lysistrata is able to persuade the women of Greece to withhold any form of sexual satisfaction from their lovers and husbands as a tool designed to force the men to negotiate peace

This suggested strategy, however, incites the battle between the men and women. Because of the use of sex, issues raised with regard to gender, and addressing war related issues, Lysistrata by Aristophanes' has been noted as one of the earliest expose of sexualized politics in a predominantly male dominated society

. The implications of this production are far reaching and have significantly used to draw parallels to modern day society and the relationship between gender, sex, and the power of influence.

Lysistrata: "There are a lot of things about us women that sadden me, considering how men see us as rascals"

Calonice: "As indeed we are"

These opening lines from the play set the tone for what follows. Aristophanes chose to characterize women as hedonistic and sly, which may bespeak how women of his time were generally considered, and in need of a firm hand and guidance from the men in their lives and men in greater society. However, the playwright painted Lysistrata as an extraordinary woman with a tremendous sense of individual and societal responsibility. She is successful in convincing the women of Greece to withhold sex from the men in their lives; which at the time, many considered the right of the man, and the oath the women took was seal with a solemn and binding oath

Aristophanes places two choruses within the play; one a chorus of older men and one a chorus of older women. The chorus of women, at Lysistrata's behest, seizes the Acropolis or high city, as it holds the treasures of the state, without which the men are unable to continue funding the war Lysistrata so adamantly opposes. The chorus of old men threatens to burn down the Acropolis if the women do not surrender. What compels the men to take action in the manner in which Lysistrata envisioned is their desperation for sex. One after another of the men present in compromising positions clearly struggling to abide by the limitations insisted upon by the women. After some squabbling, the men are able to reconcile and the war is ended and the men's sexual burdens are relieved

Some have argued that modern day adaptations of Aristophanes' Lysistrata are rendered in a pacifist or feminist style. However, literary scholars maintain that the original work was neither pacifist in nature nor decidedly feminist

. Moreover, when the male characters are portrayed as empathetic to the female condition, classical dramatic poets from Athens are said to have continued the reinforcement of sexual stereotyping of women as "irrational creatures in need of protection from themselves and from others"

. Arguably, Lysistrata is said to have accepted the conduct of the men regarding the war out of respect for their undeniable positions of authority, only after realizing that if the war continued there would be no real men available to stop the war and protect the women. Still others argue that Lysistrata was an empowered woman who saw the weakness of men and used the innate sexual prowess of women to bring a peaceful end to a wasteful war

. The following will critically examine the role of gender and sex as a means of raising social awareness as well as examine the differences posited between the psyche of men and women.

Gender and Sexuality

Definition and Mechanism

There have been many definitions and meanings posited when discussing gender. The historical definition for gender is "things we treat differently because of their inherent differences."

According to one general definition of gender, it is a range of characteristics that are used to distinguish men from women, particularly in relation to male and female attributes

. Contingent upon the contextual frame of reference, the discriminating characteristics vary from social role to gender identity to sex. In 1955, noted sexologist John Money, introduced the terminological differences between biological sex and gender as a societal role. Prior to his impactful work, it was uncommon to use or hear the word gender to refer to anything other than grammatical categories.

In addition to age, gender is considered one of the universal dimensions on which society driven status differences are determined. Unlike sex or sexuality, which is a biological and physiological phenomenon, gender is considered a social construct that delineates the cultural and social prescribed roles that women and men are to adhere or in the case of women, acquiesce to. Gerda Lerner in "The Creation of Patriarchy" purports that gender is the "costume, a mask, a straitjacket in which men and women dance their unequal dance."

Alan Wolfe maintained in "The Gender Question," "of all the way that one group has systematically mistreated another, none is more deeply rooted than the way men have subordinated women. All other discriminations pale by comparison"

The categorization of females and males into social roles creates binaries in which individuals feel they must exist at one end of a linear spectrum and find it necessary to identify themselves as either woman or man. In society at large, communities interpret these binaries or biological differences between women and men to generate and derive a set of social expectations that determine and define behaviors that are deemed appropriate for men and women and determined men and women's rights, power in society, resources and health behaviors.

Although the specific degree and nature of these differences vary from one society to another, most often men are favored, which in turn creates an imbalance in power and gender inequalities in most if not all countries.

Michel Foucault, western philosopher, purported that as sexual subjects, humans are objectified by power, which is not a structure or institution, but rather a name or signifier attributed to "complex strategical situation."

Because of this power, inherent or applied, individual attributes, behaviors, and attitudes are determined and individuals are a part of an epistemologically and ontologically constructed set of labels and names. For example, being a woman categorizes one as female, and being female indicates that one is emotional, weak and irrational, and incapable of the actions frequently attributed to man.

Judith Butler, author of "Sexual Politics" argues that sex and gender are more like nouns and verbs. She asserts that her actions are limited because she is a woman or female. "I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly. This is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does."

Feminist academic and biologist Anne Fausto-Sterling repudiates the biological vs. social determinism discourse and advocates for more in depth analysis of how the interactions between the social environment and the biological being influence an individual's capacities and abilities.

Feminist and philosopher, Simone de Beauvoir introduced the notion of existentialism and the experiences of women. "One is not born a woman, one becomes one."

Just as there have been a plethora of definitions and philosophical contextual frameworks posited about gender, there have been many definitions and notions purported with regard to sexuality. For some, human sexuality is defined as how individuals experience erotic sensations and express themselves as sexual beings; the capacity they have for erotic responses and experiences; and the awareness of the individual as male or female.

Moreover, human sexuality is a way to describe the way in which an individual is attracted to another of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality) no sex (asexuality) or both sexes (bisexuality).

In addition, human sexuality can include aspects associated with culture, law, philosophy, and politics as well as religious, spiritual, theological, ethical and moral ideologies.

In the classic nature vs. nurture debate relates to the importance of an individual's natural or innate qualities vs. his or her personal experiences in causing or determining individual differences in behavioral and physical traits.

The notion that individuals acquire most if not all of their behavioral characteristics and traits from nurture was originally posited by John Locke who suggested that human development transpires as a direct result of environmental influences only.

Whereas the physiological and biological aspects of an individual's sexuality deal primarily with human reproduction and the biological or physical means by which to carry it out through sexual intercourse, the psychological aspects of human sexuality are suggested to generate significant psychological and emotional responses. According to the sociocultural contextual frame of reference, human sexuality can be understood as a component of the human social life that is governed by implied rules for conduct and behavior and the idea of the status quo. Moreover, in addition to narrowing the purview of human sexuality to groups within the larger society, the sociocultural aspect examines social norm influences including the effects of external factors such as mass media or politics. These movements can assist in bring about significant and widespread changes in the social norm, such as the sexual revolution and the advent of feminism.

Overview of Theory and Practice

Theories regarding gender and sexuality date back to ancient Rome and Greece. Of those that are particularly interesting is the greater acceptance of same sex relations in ancient history and culture; between men, between women, and between men and boys.

One of the earliest 'feminist' from the same era is Sappho, who has been particularly influential because of her expression and lesbianism. She is one of the few if not only female voices from the literature that dates back to Ancient Rome and Greece.

In "Making Sex" Thomas Laqueur, examines how sexuality from the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans through the Renaissance period was structured especially differently than in the nineteenth century or in modern times. He specifically points to the influences of science prior to the mid eighteenth century and the propensity toward a perception of men and women as versions of a single sex: women were seen as lesser men with a uterus and clitoris that were inverted versions of the male scrotum and penis.

Given Laqueur's one sex model, the differences between men and women, then, would not be clear or even as important as they are made out to be in other theoretical constructs. For Laqueur, both men and women were seen as unequal parts of a larger cosmological order that posited sexuality not gender as being historically determined.

This book, then, is about the making not of gender, but of sex. I have no interest in denying the reality of sex or of sexual dimorphism as an evolutionary process. But I want to show on the basis of historical evidence that almost everything one wants to say about sex -- however sex is understood- already has in it a claim about gender. Sex, in both

the one-sex and the two-sex worlds, is situation; it is explicable only within the context of battles over gender and power.

In this way, Laqueur has aligned himself with the poststructuralist and Foucault who oppose even the most traditional notions of feminist distinction between one's bodily sex (nature) and one's acquired gender (nurture).

Many scholarly accounts posit the eighteenth century as a period of transition in the understanding of sexuality and gender. During this period, the foundation for the "naturalization" of gender categories was established, which became particularly important in the next century, and further would provide for the belief that gendered behavior was a biological matter; in essence, biology was destiny.

The strict binary system was made way for by eighteenth century medical science and the discovery of the incommensurable differences between female and male bodies. Laqueur laments, "Sometime in the eighteenth century, sex as we know it was invented."

For the first time, men and women were seen as opposites in most areas, in this new system of sexual dimorphism. Women were seen as passionless and passive, and men were regarded as sexually charged and aggressive, for instance. The evolution of binary gender was not an overnight or expedited process. Particularly relevant to this writing is the rise of Enlightenment in this period where values of fraternity, liberty and equality were introduced, which many women philosophers and thinkers argue needed to have been made applicable to all humanity including women.

Mary Wollstonecraft's book, "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is an example of Enlightenment values and was instrumental in calling for women's own distinct inalienable rights.

The idea of "natural" gender distinctions purportedly dominated nineteenth century thought and theory. The conception of normative sexuality centered on the middle class family was birthed during this era. However, many non-normative forms of sexuality were also expressed including non-heterosexuality and non-procreation.

The public and private spheres were considered complementary but separate entities of middle class culture that resulted from industrialization, urbanization, and significant economic growth. These distinctive spheres were loosely commensurate with the binary gender distinctions; however, the public sphere was male dominated as it was the dimension of money making, politics, business, industry, empire building and struggle. And the private sphere was considered preserved for the feminine as it was the space of hearth and home, nurture, sympathy, childrearing and simple piety.

It goes without saying that in this "commensurate" system, women had minimal access to the public sphere.

The claim of the middle class to cultural authority was strongly connected and even hinged on the claim to moral superiority. The idea and ideal of the domestic that can under scrutiny near the end of the nineteenth century is credited with fueling the public debate about the role of women. Because of new laws and rulings in the late 1800's women were able to divorce their husband which increased and intensified the commensurate goal of regulating female sexuality. Moreover, the growing visibility and economic power of the working class and women moving into the workplace only intensified the manner in which women's roles were scrutinized.

The theoretical debate has continued into the 20th and 21st centuries with an increased demand for change played out in the political arena; particularly surrounding the issue of enfranchisement. From the suffragettes to the flappers through the equal rights movement, women finally began to realize the political implications and implementations of a number of issues most pertinent to them. Social awareness has continued to rise with regard to gender and sex as well as the focus on the differences between men and women.

Gender and Sexuality in Lysistrata

Lysistrata: Our country's fortunes depend on us -- it is with us to undo utterly the Peloponnesians.

Cleonice: That would be a noble deed truly!

Lysistrata: To exterminate the Boeotians to a man!

Cleonice: But surely you would spare the eels.

Lysistrata: For Athens' sake I will never threaten so fell a doom; trust me for that. However, if the Boeotian and Peloponnesian women join us, Greece is saved.

Cleonice: But how should women perform so wise and glorious an achievement, we women who dwell in the retirement of the household, clad in diaphanous garments of yellow silk and long flowing gowns, decked out with flowers and shod with dainty slippers?

Lysistrata: Ah, but those are the very sheet-anchors of our salvation -- those yellow tunics, those scents and slippers, those cosmetics and transparent robes.

As evidenced by the aforementioned exchange, Lysistrata exemplifies the use of the female gender and sexuality as a means to influence the outcome of the war and raise social awareness. The men have not been moved to reconsider their present course, not by the cost of the war in finances nor the cost of the war in the loss of human life. Lysistrata determines and begins to lay the foundation for the one thing the men may reconsider their position -- sexual encounter with the women in their lives. Cleonice bespeaks the status of the woman during the time in which the play was developed. She talks about the refined and dainty nature of a woman; adorned in such a manner to keep the men in their lives enchanted by their appearance. However, she also elucidates the station women held at the time; relegated to their homes and not engaging in 'business' outside the home. Where Cleonice sees the limitations of the woman's role, Lysistrata sees it as a tremendous opportunity to use the power of gender and the power of sex to raise awareness to the effects and implications of the fatal war.

The time period most relevant to Aristophanes' Lysistrata is of course that of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. That time in history is marked by male domination and female subordination as well as very 'lax social constructs' regarding sex between two individuals, whether same sex or opposite sex. However, some very strong parallels have been and can be drawn to other periods in history and the role of men and women, sex, and gender, and the utilization of these constructs in war and militarized times.

Judith Butler posits that, coitus can scarcely be said to take place in a vacuum; although of itself it appears a biological and physical activity, it is set so deeply within the larger context of human affairs that it serves as a charge microcosm of the variety of attitudes and values to which culture subscribes.

Butler goes on to argue that even a disinterested examination of our current system of relationships between the sexes indicates that for the sexes now and throughout history, it has been a case of a relationship based on dominance and subordinance. However, what is largely unexamined according to Butler, and often unacknowledged yet institutionalized in society's social order is the priority of birthright wherein makes rule females.

This interior colonization, as Butler refers to it, has been successfully achieved and it has been sturdier than any other form of segregation, more uniformly distributed, more enduring, and more rigorous than any societal class stratification. Butler maintains that sexual dominion and domination has been possibly the most pervasive ideology of society and our culture; providing the fundamental and foundational notions and concepts of power.

Butler attributes the relegated positioning of women to historical civilizations being patriarchal. Accordingly, if one looks at a patriarchal government as the institution wherein half of the population that is female is controlled by the half that is male, the patriarchal principles appear to be binary: "male shall dominate female, elder make shall dominate younger."

There are however some exceptions and contradictions that exist within the system. Patriarchy is an institution that has been deeply ingrained into human relationships since the time of Aristophanes and his Lysistrata. It has been a social constant regardless of its economic, cultural, social or political form, whether operating in a bureaucracy caste or class system, and despite the religion.

The area of class and the role the female plays in the patriarchal system seems particularly relevant to Lysistrata and how sexuality and gender impacted the outcome of the war. Sexual status, as posited by Butler, frequently operates on a confusing, superficial way within the class variable.

In a society where an individuals' status is contingent upon the social, educational and economic circumstances of class, it is possible for particular females to seem as if they stand higher or are able to influence some males. However, when one looks closely at the situation, that ceases to be the case. As previously mentioned, those who argue that Lysistrata recognized the authority of men and their positions with regard to the war, would certainly agree with Butler's argument here. Sexual politics, which is what Lysistrata initiated and the men and women in the play participated in, obtains consent through the way in which both sexes are socialized to basic polities of the patriarchy with regard to role, status and temperament.

With regard to status, Butler argues that a "pervasive assent to the prejudice of male superiority guarantees superior status in the male, inferior in the female."

Temperament involves human personality formation along lines that are stereotyped and categorized according to sex wither feminine or masculine, determined by the values and needs of the dominant group and articulated by what the members of the group cherish in themselves and find conveniently in those subordinate to them: force, intelligence, efficacy, aggression in the male, and ineffectuality, docility, ignorance, and "virtue" in the female.