Gold jewelry across ancient cultures and civilizations

Gold Jewelry -- a History

Project's Overall Aims and Objectives

The overall aim of this project is to provide a well-researched, authentic history of the use of gold in adornments -- notably jewelry -- from several cultures and historical periods. This paper also offers an overview of the ways in which cultures and nations have found gold and how those discoveries of gold impacted civilizations. Offering the big picture of where gold jewelry fits into culture and history, plus pointing to present-day relevant economic issues vis-a-vis the gold market, is the aim of this project.

The importance of gold jewelry to the American economy cannot be minimized: jewelry consumption is "critical to the overall gold market as it is the single largest physical user [of gold] accounting for about two-thirds of the total demand for gold" (Corti, 2009). Hence, full knowledge of the history of gold, and of the value of gold through the ages -- as well as today -- is a solid foundation upon which to launch a career in gold and gold jewelry.

Introduction to the Literature Review -- Gold's Cultural and Material Value

Because of the relative ease with which gold can be manipulated, shaped and designed, along with the pure form in which it is often found, archeologists, anthropologists, historians and other scholars surmise that gold "…was the first metal used by man" (Kellogg, et al., 1903, p. 178). Moreover, looking closely at the way in which ancient cultures created gorgeous adornments from gold, the craftsmen in those eras clearly attained marvelous skills working with gold "at a time when the other arts were in a very elementary condition" (Kellogg, 178). The authors of this article use -- as an example of the above-mentioned skills employed by ancient goldsmiths -- a bronze age sword that was discovered near Stonehenge in England. The hilt of this sword is covered with "…the most microscopically minute gold mosaic"; the design of the sword was created by tiny pins (tesserae) of "red and yellow gold" placed systematically as in a mosaic into the wooden core of the handle (Kellogg, 178).

Amazingly, there are an estimated two thousand of these gold tesserae to the square inch in the handle (Kellogg, 178). Since Stonehenge is believed to have been created between 3100 and 1100 BC, the sword found nearby can be assumed to be as old or nearly as old.

Literature Review -- Gold in Egypt

Africa certainly wasn't the only place in the ancient world where gold was mined and fashioned into adornments -- becoming part of cultural and economic history. Egypt has been a part of the world where gold was plentiful. Author A. Lucas -- writing in his book Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries -- reports that the gold-bearing region of Egypt is "immense"; it can be found between the Nile valley and the Red Sea, and Lucas explains that there are "at least" eighty-five key gold mining places ("workings") that can be attributed "with certainty" to the Egyptians or Mediaeval Arabs before the 10th century A.D. (Lukas, 2003, p. 258).

While the archeologists researching gold in African apparently are not 100% certain that all the gold found in grave sites actually originated in Africa, Lukas asserts that "…there cannot be any doubt that the gold from the local mines [in Egypt] provided most of the gold used in Egypt anciently," in particular during the very early periods. The gold in ancient Egypt was "levied as tribute or taken as one of the fruits of victory after war, since it was a valuable and desirable metal to possess" (Lukas, 259). One has to take Lukas at his word that "most" of the gold in ancient Egypt was local gold, although later on page 259 he explains that the Second Dynasty gold had antimony in it, which is a hint that it may be Transylvanian in origin (Transylvania gold will be reviewed later in this paper). The gold from Transylvania quite possibly arrived in Egypt about 3000 BC, although that remains a subject of some debate.

The way to mine alluvial gold is quite simple: the sand and gravel within the alluvium can be washed away with water (in a stream or with a directed flow of water) leaving the gold behind (because it is heavier than sand and gravel). But how did the Egyptians extract gold from the veins in quartz rock? According to a Greek writer (Agatharchides) who paid a visit to Egypt in the second century BC, the quartz was cracked and broken into bits "by means of fire and then attacked by hammers and picks" (Lukas, 262). Once the broken rock was in manageable pieces, it was brought outside the mine where workers crushed it in "large stone mortars" until it was the size of peas (262). Later it was ground to a fine powder in hand mills, and the powder was then washed with water on a "sloping surface in order to separate the metal" which could be harvested in "small ingots" (262).

The craftsmanship of Egyptians when working with gold has been duly recorded in numerous books and magazines over the years. Lukas (263) asserts that a "very high degree of skill went into: a) the four gold bracelets from Abydos" (First Dynasty); b) the gold foil and gold brads / rivets (Third Dynasty) from Saqqara; c) the gold work from the tomb of Hetepheres (Fourth Dynasty); d) the gold head of a hawk from Hierakonpolis (Sixth Dynasty); and d) the superb gold work that was found in the tomb of Tutankhamen in the Eighteenth Dynasty. Because is easily shaped, these above-mentioned items were made to form by a skilled craftsman's hammer and by casting; gold was engraved and embossed; gold was used in granule form for decorative purposes; gold was pounded into thin sheets for "covering furniture, wooden coffins… for plating copper and silver and for cutting into thin strips to make wire" (Lukas, 264).

Lukas explains that he measured several specimens of sheet gold (actually gold foil) and those items varied from 0.17 mm to 0.54 mm in thickness; he also measured the leaf gold and it ran from 0.01 mm to 0.09 mm. These measures clearly show the talent of ancient Egyptian craftsmen, who were using tools that compared with today's technological sophistication were quite crude, and yet showed remarkable skill in producing what they did.

Ancient Egyptians -- men and women -- loved jewelry, according to professor Eric Cline from George Washington University and author Jill Rubalcaba. In their book, The Ancient Egyptian World, they report that Egyptians wore "two or three rings" on every finger. Even people who lived in poverty wove wildflowers and grassed into interesting necklaces, bracelets, and rings. Kings in Egypt rewarded their soldiers (and others, including "faithful followers") with large hoop earrings and gold jewelry, known as "Gold of the Brave" (Cline, et al., 2005). The Egyptians believed that jewelry had supernatural powers and that gold "was the flesh of the sun god Re," Cline explains. Silver (even more rare and hence more precious than gold) was believed to have arrived from the "bones of the moon god," Cline continues.

David P. Silverman's book Ancient Egypt discusses the ancient Egyptians' love of jewelry; they "valued personal adornment," he writes. Predynastic graves that have been excavated revealed necklaces and bracelets made of "shell, common stones or dried mud" strung together in a crude way (Silverman, 2003). Silverman boldly asserts that "virtually every type of jewelry" that society uses today "existed in ancient Egypt. All the evidence found in coffins and elsewhere leads to the fact that every well-dressed man and woman (particularly during the New Kingdom era) would likely be wearing earrings, a diadems, an elaborate broad collar consisting of six or more strands of beads, a pectoral, bracelets, armbands and a number of rings and anklets" (perhaps as many as two or three rings per finger, as Cline's narrative describes) (Silverman).

Gold was "the most prized material for jewelry," Silverman explains. Whether gold was used by itself, or whether it combined in an elegant setting with stones that were brightly colored (often semiprecious), or perhaps with turquoise, it was gold that was the most treasured kind of jewelry. The jewelry made of gold was passed from one Egyptian generation to another. Those who could not afford precious metals or gemstones to go with their gold jewelry "made do," Silverman continues, with substitutes (like colored glass or faience).

The varieties of gold jewelry (within each category of jewelry) was quite "extensive," the author explains. The earliest time that earrings were worn was estimated to be the Second Intermediate Period, and those ancient earrings were "simple hoops" of gold that were inserted in the pierced ears of Egyptians. By the completion of the New Kingdom in Egyptian history (the New Kingdom was 1550 BC to 1069 BC) the variety of earrings available had mushroomed. (Silverman). An Egyptian wishing to be stylish could choose from elaborate dangles, hoops, boss earrings and little studs for the ears as well. By observing some of the mummies from ancient Egypt anthropologists find stretched earlobes which clearly indicates heavy earrings had been worn, no doubt with gold as part of the product.

Beyond simply being adorned by gold jewelry, some Egyptians wore gold collars that were made of "tiny disc beads strung together in rows" called in that era the "Gold of Honor" (Silverman). If you were wearing a gold collar you had an "exalted status," Silverman writes. Also, flies, the "epitome of tenacity," were made in gold, ivory or semiprecious stones, and were awarded to citizens by the rulers of Egypt for their acts of heroism. Many spectacular discoveries have been made in Egypt that explain how people lived during the era of pharos, the author continues. And those discoveries include golden articles of jewelry found during the Twelfth Dynasty in the tombs of princesses; found were raised compartments of gold that were inlaid with "semi-precious turquoise, garnet, feldspar and carnelian" (Silverman). The author goes out on a limb to assert that no jeweler could possible "surpass his or her ancient Egyptian counterpart in the delicacy, sensitivity to design and use of color displayed in these exquisite examples of personal finery."

Literature Review -- Gold in Russia

The search for and usage of gold in Russia came many centuries after Africans and Egyptians had been mining gold, shaping and fabricating gold, and using gold in jewelry. Dr. Michael Leibov writes in the journal Rocks & Minerals that it is "startling" to realize that Russia has not even discovered gold until relatively recently (Leibov, 2004, p. 156). A culture cannot adorn its citizens with gold jewelry unless one of two things happen: a) the culture must obtain gold from other outside sources; or b) that culture and that nation needs to locate a reliable source of gold for its own social and economic uses.

Meanwhile the lack of a gold source in Russia was not a result of poor efforts, Leibov explains, because nearly every ruler in Russia's early history tried to find gold. In fact back in the 15th century (1488 to be exact) Ivan III invited known experts in gold discovery from around the world to help explore and mine for gold. Ivan the Terrible brought in Italian masters to search for gold.

On page 156 Leibov points out that Peter the Great "went so far as to sign a decree" that made this pronouncement: "Anyone disposed is free to search, dig, melt, and refine metals of any kind [in Russia], be it gold, silver, or copper, with no limitations of place to search and mind, irrespective of the land ownership." Certainly the Russians were well aware of the gold-influenced cultures centuries before them in Africa and Egypt, and Leibov asserts that no gold was found anywhere in Russia until the early years of the 18th century. Miners realized that mines in the Transbaikal region had gold, but there was the problem of extracting that gold.

But Ivan Mokeyey, who was a noted assayer and an expert on metallurgy, conceived of methods to get the gold out by smelting silver ore, and it worked. The year was 1714. With practice, the Russians were able to get "modest amounts" (pounds), and later it was extracted by the tons (Leibov, 157). A few years later, other mines were located in the Altai region of Russia, which became the major gold-producing venue for Russia and helped in the "replenishing of the Russian treasury" (Leibov, 158). But the best source of gold in Russia turned out to be in the Ural Mountains in the north, and notwithstanding all the experts from Russia and elsewhere in the world, the man who discovered gold in the Ural Mountains was a "peasant" by the name of Yerofey Markov. The chief of the management bureau of "productive enterprises" in Russian issued the following report:

"On May 21, 1745, Markov, the old believer, observed some light-colored crystal-like stones at the roadside between the villages of Stanovaya and Pyshma. To get stones of better quality he dug a hole about his own height deep. He found a plate-like stone resembling chert containing… a grain of something that looks like gold; there were three or four such grains in each stone, but he does not remember for sure how much in total…" (Leibov, 159).

Ironically, this discovery nearly cost Markov his life. When Russian officials hurried to the site Markov had discovered, they found no gold. Hence, Markov was suspected of "trying to hide the true site of his discovery" and was scheduled to be "tortured" but prior to his demise he was released. Later, the Russians did indeed find gold in the Ural Mountains -- at the site Markov tried to tell them about -- and "the deposit remains among the largest in Russia" today (Leibov, 159). Between the years 1871 and 1880, Russia (thanks to Markov and the rich gold deposits in the Ural Mountains) was producing about 38 tons of gold a year, which represented about 22% of the total world production. They came to the dance late, but the Russians made up for it by going all-out to produce gold.

The modern nation of Russia (formerly Russia, then the Soviet Union, now Russia again) may not have discovered its own sources for gold but an early culture that dominated what is now Russia -- the Scythians -- had a history that included gold. One can assume the gold that the Scythians used originated from outside of Russia, perhaps from Egypt. The Scythians were nomads whose culture originated from Persia (now known as Iran), who migrated from Central Asia to Russia in the 8th and 9th centuries BC (History-World.org). The Scythians were "among the earliest people to master the art of horsemanship" and their prowess on horseback helped them defeat the Cimmerians (in a war that lasted 30 years), and to eventually control an empire that stretched from west Persia through what is now Syria to the borders of Egypt, according to the History-World.org information.

The Scythians ruled and became wealthy, leaving "elaborate graves filled with richly worked articles of gold and other precious materials"; moreover, the Scythians are credited with developing what jewelers and other today call "animal-style" gold production (History-World.org). Carved and shaped from gold were plaques that clearly showed "running or fighting animals" like reindeer, tigers, horses and lions' and these animals made of gold were to be seen on necklaces, bracelets, pectorals, diadems and earrings, History-World.org reports. These animal-themed jewelry articles of gold were also traded to Phoenicians in the 8th century BC and found their way into the Mediterranean and into Western jewelry as well.

Author Michael Kort explains (in his book A Brief History of Russia) that the Scythians were first to use saddles and "bitted bridles," and their light swords, bows and arrows, and martial arts strategies made them feared warriors. What made them even more frightening was their "gruesome custom of cutting off the heads of their defeated enemies and turning the skulls into leather-lined drinking cups, vessels they decorated with gold and proudly displayed to their guests" (Kort, 2008, p. 2). The author mentions that until fairly recently historians believed that the Scythians had produced their "finely crafted gold jewelry under the influence of the Greeks" because the Greeks had indeed developed colonies along the shores of the Black Sea (Kort, 3).

However, that historical note has subsequently been refuted. Indeed, the excavation of a tomb believed to be 2,700 years old near the Yenisey River in Siberia (north of the Mongolia-Russia border) reveals that "long before they came into contact with Greeks" the Scythians were "skilled goldsmiths" (Kort, 3). As to where they purchased or traded for the gold they used, the author does not elaborate. However, the "exquisite jewelry and ornaments" they created -- used to decorate their weapons, saddles, tools and other items -- featured the original Scythian style (birds of prey, wolves, and stags). Hence the author calls this discovery "glittering testimony" to the "artistic sensibility Scythians developed on their own as they wandered across the steppe" of Russia (Kort, 3).

Author Joanna Hubbs explains that gold jewelry had a symbolic place in the annual Koliada festival in the 18th century in Russia. The festival was observed during the Winter Solstice, and more than a celebration of yuletide and the coming of the winter season, the Koliada festival was a time for young women to receive young men and be courted by those young men. Hubbs explains that the festival was called "half-light" -- a time when the living and the dead "communed and the promise of new life emerged out of the frozen ground" (Hubbs, 1993, p. 64). Moreover, preceding the festival was a ceremony that suggested in no small measure the "control which women exercised over the forces of human generation" (Hubbs, 65). Young women gathered at the home of a widow, and while they were sewing young men came to visit and to court them. Part of that ceremony involved a bowl of water into which gold jewelry had been dropped. An embroidered towel, or a handkerchief was placed over the bowl; the young girls sang songs as they one by one removed the gold objects that were hidden in the bowl of water.

"Whoever drew the desired object, a ring, would marry" but others would not (Hubbs, 66). Those who did not get the gold ring might even die within the following year, or so the ritual projected, whether valid or not. The song that the young women sang while plunging fingers into the bowl of gold jewelry was intended to "evoke both human and crop fertility," Hubbs continues. The first few stanzas of the song went like this: "We keep gold on the Holy Eve… Gold fell on the poppy seeds / And they flowered into poppies / White fire burst forth out of them / and turned into snow" (Hubbs, 66). As part of the symbolic beliefs of the Koliada festival the golden objects in the bowl symbolized "the union of sun and water, male and female, in the domain of the goddess of fertility" (Hubbs, 66).

Literature Review -- Gold's Worth in 2011

In the book Gold: Science and Applications (Corti, et al., 2009, p. 7) the authors explain that the use of gold in jewelry is measured in "karat" form. Measuring it this way helps to separate costume jewelry (which may be made from brass with a thin gold plating), Corti writes. There are places that sell 24-karat gold (considered pure gold) jewelry, including China; but the "highest caratage typically sold is 22-karat" gold and that is the norm for gold jewelry made and sold in India, Corti continues (7). The next major grade for gold used in jewelry is 18-karat, considered the norm in southern Europe. In fact the use of 18-karat gold in jewelry is considered standard in many areas because when making high-quality pieces, in particular those pieces of jewelry that carry diamonds and other precious stones, the alloy (18-karat gold is mixed with alloys) is "…sufficiently hard to hold stones and color on an effectively permanent basis" (Corti, 7).

The lines have been blurred recently according to Corti, when it comes to identifying fine jewelry vs. costume jewelry. In past years a gold pendant typically would feature a gold chain, the author explains; but in 2011, when things are less formal vis-a-vis gold and jewelry, that same gold pendant might well have a "leather or silk cord" instead of a gold cord (7). Also, a recent theme in Western markets is the shift "…from plain gold to pieces with stones and the move to branded or high-fashion designs" (Corti, 7). Moreover, the consumer that used to by nothing but gold jewelry now tends to devote more spending to "other materials, such as diamonds…" which cuts the money spent on gold. On top of that, Corti claims that "…all jewelry has been losing market share to other discretionary areas," like vacations to foreign venues, smart phones and other technology goods -- not just because jewelry is falling out of favor with consumer but because the travel industry and technology companies like Apple for example have "far greater advertising budgets" (7).

The largest Jewelry market in the world is India, Corti asserts (consumption in India runs from 500 to 600 tons annually) and Indians hold about 15,000 tons of gold at the present time, most of it in the form of jewelry. China is in second place (just over 300 tons of gold jewelry consumption a year) and the U.S. is third (about 260 tons sold annually) (Corti, 7).

Methodology

The method of gathering materials for this project involved searching, reading, and segmenting issues according to their importance, quoting, editing and paraphrasing.

Data Collection & Data Analysis

The scholarly databases available on the World Wide Web -- along with general search engines online -- offer a seamless way of collecting data, histories and other narratives that are pivotal to a paper at this level. An alert researcher has a choice of hundreds of relevant books, peer-reviewed articles, and other materials germane to this project. It is the job of the researcher to collect the materials and in this case, carefully cull out the literature that is most pertinent.

Expected Findings and Implications

The materials that were discovered in this project were exactly what the writer expected to find: deep, scholarly, historically relevant information. The implications from the many sources embraced by the writer are powerfully linked to the topic of gold jewelry and the cultural symbols and social meanings therein.

Timescale and Plan

Conclusion

The narrative provided in this paper reflects the fascinating history not just of the discovery of gold in various places, but also of the brilliant craftsmanship that early cultures employed in order to make the most of their gold products. And gold is in great demand today as it was a thousand years ago. To wit, a recent edition of the Christian Science Monitor (Homes, 2011) reports that "2010 was a remarkable year for gold. Overall demand grew by 9% to reach a 10-year high on increased jewelry demand…" The bottom line for gold jewelry? The future looks very bright, as bright as the dazzling yellow tone of a 24-karat gold ring on the finger of an elite African chieftain.