Gregory Bateson, Second-Order Cybernetics, and

Gregory Bateson, Second-order Cybernetics, And Metacommunication: Human Communication Analysis Based on Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, And Group Interaction The development of communication studies in the latter part of 20th century brought into fore important concepts and discoveries about the nature of human relations and interactions. The history of social science research had witnessed the shifting trends of human communication studies from quantitative to qualitative and eventually, towards a fusion between quantitative and qualitative studies.

While quantitative means were utilized to research on human communication, most studies centered on specific phenomena that were generated through qualitative means. This was the state of human communication studies when Gregory Bateson began embarking his research in the field of cybernetics. Primarily identified as an "ethnologist," Bateson began applying his knowledge of various cultures and societies in the world in quantitative research.

With other communication researchers such as Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, Bateson introduced second-order cybernetics, a concept which is defined as follows (Littlejohn, 1999:53): Traditional system theory and cybernetics treat systems as objectively observable, but in second-order cybernetics, the observed system both affects and is affected by the observer...What we observe in a system is determined in part by the categories and methods of observation, which in turn are affected by what is seen.

Second-order cybernetics evidently illustrates an interactive system wherein the individual is constantly in relation with its social environment. Moreover, cybernetics being an area of study in human communication and interaction between the individual and social environment, it then becomes a combination of objective and subjective realities. This means that cybernetics has both its objective (or quantitative) and subjective (or qualitative) realities. As an 'observed system that affects,' cybernetics objectively looks into the social phenomenon being studied, noting its nature and dynamics through quantitative measures.

However, it is also inevitable that the observer or researcher affects the system or phenomenon being studied. When this happens, subjective reality of the observer/researcher was put into analysis and interpretation, documented through qualitative research techniques. In effect, cybernetics is a field of study in human communication that does not only take into consideration the rigor of research associated with quantitative studies, but also includes the flexibility of information generation known in qualitative research.

Although cybernetics is a combination of both objective and subjective realities, Bateson puts more premium in qualitative analysis when studying human communication. In "Steps to an ecology of mind," Bateson elucidates on the importance of "metacommunication," communication that is understood when a communicator is able to effectively interact with another communicator/s. However, the concept of "metacommunication" is only achieved when a communicator is able to know and understand the cultures and values held by another or other communicator/s.

The cybernetic process and concept of metacommunication was evident in his analysis of human communication through the years.

In discussing the dynamics of formulating a theory on process (Minimal requirements for a theory of schizophrenia), Bateson stated: The difference between the Newtonian world and the world of communication is simply this: that the Newtonian world ascribes reality to objects and achieves its simplicity by excluding the context of the context -- indeed excluding all metarelationships...In contrast, the theorist of communication insists upon examining the metarelationships while achieving its simplicity by excluding all objects.

This passage distinguishes between the "Newtonian world" (or the objective-quantitative reality) and "world of communication," which was characterized as subjective-qualitative. According to Bateson, in the Newtonian world, analysis and interpretation of a phenomenon is only possible when there are "objects" or materials that signify the existence of the phenomenon in reality. Without these objects or materials, however, analysis and interpretation would not be possible, even feasible, for the researcher. Thus, the existence, nature, and dynamics of the phenomenon cease to exist without evidence of these objects or materials.

In the world of communication, meanwhile, reality is proven even without the existence of objects or materials related to the phenomenon being studied. Through metarelationships, interactions which involve metacommunication, analysis and interpretation of a communication phenomenon becomes possible even without the existence of objects or materials related to it. What is considered important is the human element -- that is, the roles or functions played by people in the process of communication and interaction.

Understanding the cultures -- values, beliefs, and traditions -- of people enables the researcher to identify the communication nature and dynamics occurring in a specific culture. Thus, as long as the human element is present, the world of communication will continue to exist and researcher will be able to analyze and interpret communication phenomena as it happens in society. Given these natures of cybernetics and metacommunication, Bateson delved deeper into his analysis of communication by equating the "world of communication" into quantitative means.

He determined the process of meaning-creation or the process of cybernetics through different categories: Learning 0, I, II, and III. Zero learning is identified as "the label for the immediate base of all those acts (simple and complex) which are not subject of correction by trial and error." As the basest form of learning in communication and interaction, zero learning is the foundation of the individual's 'bank of knowledge' concerning various communication cultures.

It is when the individual reaches Learning I when careful analysis and interpretation of communication acts and meanings take place. In this category of learning, Bateson introduces the notion of repeatable contexts and repeated practice, which enhances the individual's ability to recognize, through his/her experiences, what communication actions and meanings are acceptable or not acceptable to specific cultures in various societies. The concept of Learning I is adequately illustrated through an analysis of intrapersonal communication.

Learning and behavior are developed through intrapersonal communication; it is in this stage that the individual, as potential communicator, is able to identify what communication acts are acceptable in his/her culture. When these acts and meanings are not accepted in his culture, then these will not be utilized by the individual in his future interaction with other people. Bateson argues how through "context markers," communicators are able to metacommunicate -- determine and understand a specific action and the meaning implied in it.

He cited the "observance of etiquette" as one way in which human culture imposes specific values and traditions within the individual, which in turn affects the way s/he communications and interacts with others.

Waving a hand is considered a form of informal greeting for most cultures, as well as the upward movement of the head, acting as a context marker for someone 'saying' "Yes." However, these communication actions are culture-specific, which means that a communicator must understand that in most Middle Eastern countries, there are cultures wherein nodding the head means "No" instead of a "Yes." When the individual is able to distinguish between differences among cultures in terms of communication actions, intrapersonal communication takes place to induce Learning I.

Learning I is continually developed as more and more cultural information is passed onto, learned, and practiced repeatedly by the individual/communicator. In the next stage of learning, Learning II, the communicator widens his/her knowledge of communication and interaction by engaging in interpersonal or one-on-one communication. While Learning 0 and 1 set the foundation of communication learning, Learning II is a category wherein "punctuating events" take place.

At this stage, according to Bateson, the communicator or individual is now able to 'contextualize' an action or meaning -- that is, s/he is able to determine the rightness or wrongness of an action or meaning in the context or situation in which they occur.

Bateson elucidated this event (i.e., contextualizing) a process that "mold the total context to fit the expected punctuation." While in Learning I the individual is just learning and developing communication skills, in Learning II, s/he must now be able to identify acts and meanings that belong or do not belong to his/her culture.

As exemplified earlier, distinguishing between the different actions in which agreement or disagreement are expressed is a manifestation of learning at the second level, where the communicator now commits action based on the context or situation s/he is in. Thus, when the individual is in a Middle Eastern society, it is essential to adopt the culture's communication action of agreement and disagreement, which is opposite to the individual's American culture and upbringing.

These adjustments made by the communicator is an illustration of contextualization, the commitment of proper actions and meanings in an altogether different culture and society. This example in interpersonal communication illustrates how cybernetics and metacommunication is already evident in one-on-one interaction. Between two communicators, understanding is achieved because both are communicatively competent -- commmunicators who are able to commit actions and know its meanings that are considered agreeable to another communicator. Metacommunication between two individuals need not be people from different cultures.

Metacommunication also happens when two people with different values, beliefs, and/or opinions are interacting and communication. The synergy between them and from their interaction is illustrated by the principles of cybernetics, which holds that analysis of human communication does not only entail studying the communication act and meaning alone, but the agents through which these acts and meanings are created and transmitted: the communicators. At the last level, Learning III, the individual is now, according to Bateson, undergoes a "corrective change in the system of sets of alternatives from.