Strategies for improving reading skills

¶ … Improving Reading Skills

Reading and ESL Students

Multiculturalism in the Curriculum

Ahmad

Writing Assessment

Fry Graph

Instructional Implications

Lesson Plans

Scholarly Justifications

Reading and ESL Students - the way humans communicate and share ideas and concepts in society is quite complex. How are ideas conceptualized -- how are they explained -- how does discourse relate- and how do humans understand messages -- what is true about language- what is not? These are just some of the issues surrounding theories of language acquisition and development. By the time students arrive in school, unless intervention has occurred at a lower primary age, they have not only been subjected to numerous types of language acquisition, but because of the preponderance of global media and social networking, several non-traditional stimuli sets (Tomasello, 2008). Thus, one of the initial issues when dealing with the question of success in language learning is a robust pre-assessment of the individual skills and levels of the students involved (Lewis-Moreno, 2007). Additionally, we must differentiate two distinct populations regarding English language acquisition in the public school: 1) the native population who, for whatever reason, is not reading, writing, or performing at level; and, 2) the ESL or ELL student who is years behind in English and therefore at an automatic disadvantage in higher grades (Ochoa and Cadiero-Kaplan, 2004). This is further complicated when we realize that by secondary school it is not simply a matter of teaching more vocabulary and grammar. By this time in the educational process, core and ancillary subjects themselves have become more complex. There is a specific language for math, for the sciences, for literary analysis, for historical research and sourcing, and even for the arts. Thus, one is not simply learning to speak better English -- one is expected to advance speaking "academia" (Demski, 2009).

If we honestly examine the barriers students face when learning English in the secondary school system, we find that there are outside social and cultural pressures, a lack of sophistication in the language that results in being so lost that behavioral problems abound, a lack of support at home because English is rarely spoken, and the tremendous desire to belong to their own socio-cultural group. In fact, research shows that many bilingual students move from school to school based on the economic necessity of the parents, and are thus unable to get a foundation in English. However, regardless of the external circumstances, there is a clear expectation of dual language learning and comprehension.

Because of this continued frustration, and the fact that they never seem to be able to gain mastery over the language to perform, many simply drop out. In contrast, several factors have been identified that contribute to a more robust level of success in English language acquisition: 1) E-Learning; 2) Culture based; 3) Increased communication and parental involvement; 4) Motivational theory; and, 5) Increased use of technological-based classroom learning (Christy, 2005; Walker, 2005; Ferlazzo, 2009).

Multiculturalism and the Curriculum- in our case, our subject is a product of the increased immigration into the United States. In fact, the role of Globalization has had a remarkable effect on both the technological developments and the cultural attributes of business, society, and most especially education in the United States. Instant global communication is now possible, and individuals know they can instantly communicate with almost anywhere in the world -- and at an affordable cost. The more technology improves, the more this global economy, culture, and society develops. Of course, globalization continues to break down societal barriers, and one of the key elements to this is education. As this trend continues, and geometrically advances, it is essential for educational institutions to understand and meet the needs of numerous ethnic and multicultural students and faculty. In a society that is becoming more and more pluralistic, the diversity of individuals continues to be complex for anyone involved in the management and administration of educational goals (Gibson and Rojas, 2006). "For Western industrialized societies seemingly burdened with absorbing large flows of newcomers, immigration often inspires prickly, if not virulent, debates around citizenship, belonging, displacement, and exile. Whether framed in terms of incorporation or exclusion, the construction of the "immigrant" as a subject requiring intervention wields substantial symbolic power in "advanced" societies dealing with the "problems" of immigration today." (Ibid, p. 69).

The importance of curriculum development and structure cannot be overestimated when dealing with multicultural education. Rarely does one find a classroom in today's schools that is not multicultural, and it is important to address the English Language needs of reading and literacy within the rubric of these new Americans. European schools are far more advanced than U.S. schools in dealing with the development of coherent linguistic skills, and have realized since the 1950s the importance of language acquisition as one of the primary determiners of acculturation and socialization within the school system. This view also transcends the school since, in many cases; the parents remain far behind in learning and communicating in English (Mitchell and Salsbury, 2000).

One of the essential challenges of multicultural education is to first realize that it can be construed as one of the first phases of discrimination. Immigrant children and youth, in order to become comfortable within their new surroundings, must be welcomed into the school system with the intent that they will be immersed in a program designed for the improvement of their English language skills. Education, however, does not equivocate with schooling, but without linguistic skills, the student is adrift in a new world and unable to prepare themselves for the actual task of learning. There is no debate that increased globalization has become a fact of life -- therefore, it is time for schools to prepare children for a concept advocated 60 years ago by the famous anthropologist Margaret Mead -- that of teaching "world mobility" and the shrinking of cultural barriers (Portes and Rumbaut, 1996).

The key, then, for educators and school systems, is to find a way to make the acquisition of English part of the key curriculum, and teach and hire accordingly. Just as it is apparent that American schools are often deficient in science and math, the socio-cultural realities require that there be a trained English as a Second Language (ESL) specialist on staff or available, or that there be a requirement for ESL certification in certain high-impact areas and districts. Research shows that new immigrants can acquire bits of "survival English" rather quickly, but the ability to use English for academic purposes takes far longer and requires a more specialized set of coursework and training (La Celle-Peterson and Rivera, 1994, 2).

The primary goal, then, is to move the new immigrant into his/her grade level of literacy at the earliest possible time, so that in turn, the standards of educational testing and expectations may be granted in line with their peers. The way to do this, most scholars posit, it to develop a separate, but aggressive, curriculum that immerses the student in English and follows up with positive reinforcement and training at every conceivable opportunity. Instruction in reading is necessary, but not sufficient for this type of student -- a significant amount of oral training and proficiency level training is also crucial -- decoding, word recognition, verbal spelling, as well as the written skills of comprehension and writing. At the same time…. "that educators implement multicultural education, they must be concerned with helping to change the conditions in society that lead to the vast differences among schools" (August and Shanahan, 2006, 4; (Gollnick and Chinn, 2008, intro).

Additional findings show that the best way to represent multicultural diversity in the classrooms is not to segregate these new students completely, but in the interests of globalization, enrich the entire classroom experience by understanding the role of multiculturalism as part of the entire course curriculum, whether that be a different way of approaching social studies and music, or utilizing other cultural or linguistic training in literature, English, and even mathematics (Moore-Hart, 2004, pp.87-8).

Case Study- Ahmad -- Ahmad is an 11-year-old boy in the 6th grade. He has been in ESL programs for the past two years, ever since he and his family arrived from the United Arab Emirates. He is friendly, enthusiastic, and seems to enjoy school, but has two problems that are holding him back regarding literacy. 1) Ahmad reads well for his grade level, but miscues and substitutes words and vowels; and, 2) His vocabulary development has not matched his ability to read and pronounce words. Ahmad's parents are quite supportive of his schoolwork, his teachers, and of Ahmad mastering English. While they have only limited English, they insist that their children do all possible to "fit in" with their new country by learning to read and write in English.

Ahmad's day is fairly structured, and follows a daily routine designed to ensure that each student meets their daily requirements, but leaves little room for outside intervention:

Day begins with a short assembly in the gymnasium. This assembly, led by the principal, is communicative in nature, giving students general as well as specific information and motivational ideas.

Students then move to advisory to discuss what they learned from the principal, then begins first period science class.

Science is tutorial based, but often broken up into groups of four for lab and experimentation work. Math lab includes a number of different activities that change out regularly.

Following math, the students meet for Art class, which varies daily in activities, social and spatial development.

Lunch and a brief recess follows.

First class after lunch focuses on learning tools combined with independent reading; teacher uses only worksheets as student activity after reading; question worksheet designed to uncover comprehension and vocabulary development

Next class is social studies, work in pairs, teacher uses a number of different strategies and course outlines for variety.

Final period of the day focuses on English, or ESL for international students.

Reviewing a typical day for Ahmad, however, shows some serious disconnects in terms of his continual improvement in literacy. Analysis of his day shows:

Lack of consistent strategies to allow Ahmad the chance to catch up with vocabulary development; instead, there are so many new strategies and tasks that he falls further behind because he is unable to achieve the requisite level 6 vocabulary.

Each class is working in isolation; in the absence of an official IEP the school should at least find a way to establish some modicum of logical support between core subjects that culminates in the literacy course at the end of the day.

For ESL learners, it is important to provide a rubric of regular growth; Ahmad is being challenged with too many disparate messages to adequately comprehend them in a given day.

Assessments -- Ahmad's Student Reading Interest Survey shows that he is engaged, has multiple interests, and is able to search for, and process information at grade level. His preference for Jeff Kinney's Diary of a Wimpy Kid, shows that he is able to understand wry humor, the concepts of personification, point-of-view, place, and magical realism. While there are several moral lessons in the book, it does require that one interpret humor and cynicism in a way that requires some understanding of idiom, dialog, and more advanced sentence structure. There are also numerous subplots and manipulations that contribute to the overall story, as well as the humorous content. Ahmad likes, and collects, additional volumes showing that he enjoys storyline development, adolescent trials and tribulations, and has enough empathy to understand some of the social intricacies that are more Middle than Elementary school (Kinney, 2004).

Name____Ahmad____6 grade____Date

Student Reading Interest Survey

In School Interests:

What is the title of your favorite book that you have read?

Diary of Wimpy Kid.

Do you have a favorite book title that someone has read to you?

Lawn Boy

What kinds of books do you like to read on your own?

Story in cartoon book, picture and information

Do you have favorite books, magazines, or comic books at home?

Yes, Unbelievable Facts

Do you ever read the newspaper at home? If so, what parts of the newspaper do you read?

No

What is your favorite school subject (other than lunch)?

Language Arts

Have you ever done a special research project? What was the topic?

Yes, about salt lake, UT.

Out of School Interests:

1. What do you do for fun on weekends or after school?

Play football

2. Do you have a hobby? If so, what?

Swimming

3. What is your favorite TV show?

Discovery channel

4. Do you have favorite video or computer games?

Yes, iPod touch.

5. If you surf the Internet, what do you generally look for as you surf?

I surf for how to make airplanes.

6. Have you ever collected something like coins, stamps, and so on? If you have, what?

Yes, all Diary of Wimpy Kid books

Writing Assessment- General observations show confirm that Ahmad is imaginative. He attempts fairly strong organization, but fails to write a standard; 5 paragraph theme, model (introduction to the problem, points 1-3, compare/contrast, pov). Ahmad does not yet understand paragraph structure, but attempts to work in more advanced vocabulary than possible. Structurally, he has not yet mastered adverbs and adjective; or the agreement between such and noun/pronoun.

Further evidence of the conundrum Ahmad faces is easily shown by using Fry's Readability Assessment. This basically takes the average number of syllables in a 100-word passage, and charts where the student lines up by grade level. In Ahmad's case, his reading outshines his comprehension (assessment given after Fry), but about 40%. For example, he is reading at about 5th GL (red diamond), but when given a 10 question comprehension assessment (vocabulary, textual memory, story retelling, etc.) his level drops to approximately 2 grade levels (purple circle). Typically, the literature says we do not see this type of gap unless there is a cognitive learning disability (which there is not), or with some ESL learners who have gaps in their mastery of English (the Fry Graph Readabilty Formula, 2006; Scott and Weishaar, 2003).

Instructional Implications - Clearly, there is a disconnect between Ahmad's ability to read and his comprehension and vocabulary level, as well as his consistent and correct use of grade level appropriate grammar and punctuation. Thus, we find:

Issue

Proposed Strategy

Potential Outcome

Reading -- Vocabulary Development

Vocabulary Cards set up prior to reading assignment; Content Reading Emphasis

Steady vocabulary development based first on content literacy (Ahmad's interests, etc.), then introduction of like-words from Wimpy Kid texts; use of graphic novels to emphasize vocabulary development.

Reading -- Miscues in words and vowels

Word Sorts; Self-Analysis of Miscues

Lessening of miscues based on self-analysis and correction.

Writing -- Paragraph development

Concept Mapping and Graphical Display after story and/or prior to composition; Text Structures

Increased understanding of paragraph and story-line development based on other texts and/or previous knowledge.

Writing -- Grammar and Punctuation

Sentence Structure Analysis; Analysis of grammar structure within text

Analysis of sentence structure; improvement of recognizing and fluency in English grammar functions to grade level

Overall -- Comprehension Development

Post-it-notes as Adjust Displays;

Allows for analysis of plot, structure; questions, and especially, NEW WORDS.

Lesson Plans -- the key for Ahmad's development will be the consistency with which instructors work with him on a daily basis. This may involve a more advanced peer, a Para-professional, library staff, or preferably, the individual instructor. Regardless of the subject matter or the text, daily Ahmad should have practice in the following:

In each text, fiction or non-fiction, Ahmad should be encouraged to use different colored post-it-notes to establish a method of critical reading. For example, yellow might mean structure questions or identifications; blue characterization; and green vocabulary. Keep the amount of material short at first; maybe 1-2 paragraphs, but consistently increase this over time.

Ahmad should keep a vocabulary development notebook; easily set up by using a 3-ring notebook with 26 divider tabs, one for each letter of the alphabet. At the end of each class session, Ahmad should transfer the information from his green post-it-note to the appropriate page in the vocabulary notebook. Ideally, Ahmad should take the time to research the unfamiliar word using the dictionary and the structure below. If there is not time during core classes, Ahmad should use 5-10 minutes in Language Arts to complete his vocabulary development lesson:

a) Circular -- a roundish shape, something that is round is circular.

b) the oranges I like to eat are circular in shape.

Note than (a) defines the word in the student's vernacular; (b) the student uses the word in a meaningful sentence, and (c) the student draws or pastes a graphical representation of the word or action. By writing the definition, then using the word, the picturing the word, the student is using different levels of learning and cognition which will increase the chances of the word becoming part of the vocabulary. Follow-up from the instructor will be vital, both to ensure that Ahmad is not overwhelmed by the sheer number of words at the beginning of the task and to assess the efficacy of the program on a weekly basis. It would also be advantageous, as both a reinforcement and "fun" aspect of learning vocabulary, to make different types of flashcards that Ahmad can use as self-drill, partner drill, or instructor assessment, throughout the school term. Cards should be made, roughly three each per word, and then randomly sorted. The cards will be constructed in the same format as the vocabulary notebook, one showing the picture, one the word, one the definition with a blank for the correct word:

The Lessons listed below should be viewed as a template, and adapted to different texts from different subjects, depending on how quickly Ahmad advances through them. For instance, the grammar lessons are a template, but different sentences from different books may be used to illustrate increasingly advanced grammatical topics.

Lesson 1

English Sentence Structure Plan (Parts of Speech - Sentence Structure, 2007)

Techniques Used

Sentence Structure Analysis; Analysis of grammar within text

Procedure

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

Are these sentences?

1. "Ashley walks to the park."

2. "She takes a friend with her."

3. "Climb a tree."

Both (1) and (2) are sentences, but (3) is not a sentence. Why? It does not express a complete thought. We wonder: who climbs a tree? Why?

-by adding some words to (3) we can make a complete sentence:

"Ashley and her friend climb a tree."

Every sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject usually contains the main subject or noun, and the predicate tells what the subject is doing, which contains the verb of the sentence.

Subject

Predicate

Ashley

walks to the park

She

takes a friend with her

Ashley and her friend climb a tree

Instructor: have Ahmad write his own sentences on the board, and then identify the subject and predicate in each sentence.

Rules for writing sentences:

1. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

2. Every sentence must end with a punctuation mark. You use different marks for different kinds of sentences.

Punctuation Marks:

A period (.) ends a sentence that tells something, or makes a statement.

A questions mark (?) ends a sentence that asks a question.

An exclamation point (!) ends a sentence that shows excitement.

Types of Sentences

There are three kinds of sentences that we say and write every day.

1. Declarative: a type of sentence that declares or makes a statement.

Example - "Tom goes to school."

2. Interrogative: a sentence that asks a question.

Example - "Did Tom go to school?"

3. Imperative: a sentence that makes a request or gives a command.

Example - "Hurry Tom! Go to school now!"

Example sentences:

(Instructor: complete the following sentences with Ahmad. Identify the type and show him how to underline the subject with one line, and the predicate with two lines.)

"Did Juan finish his chores?" (Interrogative sentence)

(Subject: Did Juan / Predicate: finish his chores)

"Sam and Adam played football." (Declarative sentence)

(Subject: Sam and Adam / Predicate: played football)

"Charlie, stop that now!" (Imperative sentence)

(Subject: Charlie / Predicate: stop that now)

Grammar Analysis:

In each example sentence, identify and explain the major grammatical structure.

1. Did Juan finish his chores? (Juan is capitalized, use of question mark.)

2. Sam and Adam played football. (S and a capitalized, period at end of sentence.)

3. Charlie, stop that now! (C is capitalized, note comma and reason, exclamation mark.)

4. Do the same with Ahmad's sentences, each time ensuring they are grammatically correct; use questioning techniques to pattern what Ahmad should be doing each time he writes a sentence. Remind him that paragraphs are just sentences strung together with a main idea.

Lesson 2

Increasing Comprehension (on going lesson).

Techniques:

Quality Questioning, Post-it-Notes

Procedure -- This is a technique to teach Ahmad with any book he is reading. Since he enjoys Diary of a Wimpy Kid, and has read it, it will be the first with which we begin.

1. Give Ahmad a template (perhaps laminated as a bookmarker) of the major questions to ask about every book or story read: (Who are the main characters in the story, What did the main characters do, When did the story take place, Where did the story take place, How did the story end, How did the characters feel?)

2. Give Ahmad a set of small post-it-notes of different colors; work through one Chapter of Diary of a Wimpy Kid with him, showing him how to use marginalia (with the notes) to increase comprehension, vocabulary, and grammatical understanding:

a. Yellow -- Important things the character does -- write a short note on the note, post it with an arrow near the page reference:

b. Green -- WOW! I don't know this word -- Let's note it and then later, look it up, in the meantime, based on context, what do we think the word means?

c. Blue -- This is a complex sentence with a lot of grammatical issues that I don't understand; let's mark it and get some help analyzing it.

d. Red -- Once I am done with the chapter, write a short -- one sentence explanation about the MAIN plot of the story or chapter. Put the post-it closest to the main paragraph or sentence in the chapter.

3. Now, for each one of our major questions, post an answer that you will share with your instructor: (Who are the main characters in the story, What did the main characters do, When did the story take place, Where did the story take place, How did the story end, How did the characters feel?)

4. Be prepared to retell the story or the chapter using your own words. Did you manage to cover the major points? If someone listened to your retelling, would the understand the chapter? Are there details you should leave out? Include?

5. If time, take a sheet of paper and illustrate the MAIN idea of the chapter. This illustration might help you with clues on retelling the story.

6. Explain to Ahmad that while this is a lengthy process, if he uses it regularly now, he will simply do it automatically and without needing to write it down later.

Lesson 4-

Vocabulary Cards

Technique:

Prior to Ahmad reading a text, prepare vocabulary cards and a vocabulary worksheet for him to complete prior to attempting the text.

Rationale:

Pre-teaches needed vocabulary:

Procedure:

1. Instructor and Ahmad decide on text

2. Instructor picks 8-10 words from text that are essential vocabulary words

3. Instructor transfers these to worksheet, with corresponding practice flash card, for example:

4. Once worksheet is filled out, practice/drill with Ahmad until there is 80% fluency in the words. Then Ahmad may begin reading text. Ask Ahmad to underline (in pencil) or note with a post-it (different color) the vocabulary words studied.

Lesson 5

Content Reading Analysis using Concept Mapping

Technique

Integrate visual displays of information in order to build understanding about content.

Rationale

Increases active reading techniques, facilitates learning for students who struggle; provides scaffolding

Procedure

1. Show Ahmad various ways to graphically illustrate the story or chapter read; ask which would be most appropriate and have him practice using various methods.

2. Example: Venn diagram helps us compare characters or events:

3. We could also make a table illustrating major traits or important items:

Trait

Character

Happy

Smart

Cooperative

Competitive

Tom

Mary

Lesson 6

Content Reading Emphasis (Anticipation Guides)

Technique

Prior to presenting text, instructor identifies major ideas; Ahmad

comments on these ideas prior to reading the chapter/story.

Rationale

Builds active reading skills, allows for plot and development to become part of vocabulary; teaches morals and point-of-view

Procedure:

1. Instructor writes down 3-5 statements that are general ideas presented in text.

2. For example, using Diary of a Wimpy Kid

a. It is better to anticipate trouble and prepare for it.

b. Honesty and friendship are important, etc.

3. Ask Ahmad to write a very short (2-3 sentences) statement about the topics given.

4. Ask Ahmad to think about the statements while he reads text.

5. Post-Follow up -- as an additional writing activity, ask Ahmad to now go back to each of the statements; read what he wrote about them, then either verbally explain or write down the way the author used a specific character or set of characters to explain that same concept.

Lesson 7

Miscues

(word sorts)

Technique

May be independent or dependent on text

Rationale

Helps students study relationships between words, over time

Increases vocabulary and minimizes miscues

Procedure:

1. May be tied to text words or not

2. Uses words to arrange and rearrange words to mimic critical thinking

3. Variable and evolving by core course and Ahmad's developmental levels

4. Sorts can be done using scrabble tiles to make words, add prefixes, suffixes, etc.

5. One technique that might help Ahmad is to use the word sort and vocabulary words using Rainbow Words:

a. Have Ahmad write a set of vocabulary words using a different color for each letter (causes the brain to think about each letter).

b. Variation -- Have Ahmad write ROOT word in one color, then use suffix and prefix additions in other colors, can also be used for past tense (-ed), gerunds (-ing), plurals/possessives ('s, s, s')

Lesson 8

Self-Analysis of Miscues

Technique

Chart for Ahmad to assist in miscue method

Rationale

Self-analysis and diagnosis of miscues more robustly allows individual to form patterns of self-correction

Procedures:

1. Make a chart for Ahmad that allows him to stop when he miscues on a simple lesson. Ask him to critically analyze what he did (he can use his own vocabulary), but the major templates are:

Correction: During the oral reading, the child realizes he/she has made an error and re-reads the section/word without prompting.

Insertion: As the child is reading, he/she will insert a word or two that isn't on the page.

Omission: During the oral reading, the child leaves out a word (s.)

Repetition: A child repeats a word or portion of the text.

Reversal: A child will reverse the order of the print or the word. (will say something like of for etc.)

Substitution: Instead of reading a specific word, the child inserts a different word.

2. Can make a game out of what miscue was used by working with Ahmad to call them something fun; then, when miscue happens, research shows that the student's own self correction will become habitual and part of the overall reading experience.

3. Over time, research shows, particularly with ESL readers, as miscues diminish, it will be up to the instructor to provide increasingly robust and difficult material.

4. For Ahmad, since there are so many new techniques, use of self-analysis on miscues should wait until a bit more fluency is attained (Watson, 2010).

Conclusions- Based on the data surrounding Ahmad, it will be a challenge to integrate several lessons within a reasonable timeframe without stressing him too much. As a whole, an integrated approach to his overall comprehension of the language can be made if the individual instructors work in tandem to provide Ahmad with consistent techniques. It likely falls to the Language Arts instructor to take the lead in this, to provide templates and suggestions. It might be best, for instance, to call a meeting in which all of Ahmad's teachers agree to a plan that integrates a single new lesson type or technique per week based on their own core areas (for example, templates, flash cards, vocabulary development, etc.). It is imperative that the plan/program NOT overwhelm Ahmad with so much new vocabulary that he cannot keep up (e.g. 10 words per class would be 40-50 words per day, too many). Finally, while the research background for intervention is listed below, it might behoove the teachers to find a way to get Ahmad some special, one-on-one before or after-school tutoring. This would allow time to reinforce the concepts made and build a more robust base for future lessons.

Scholarly Justification - We might consider a more robust introduction toward dual language learning paradigms. Dual language learning is a method in which students learn reading, writing, and literacy in two languages concurrently. In the United States, due to demographics, most dual language learning is English/Spanish, although increasing immigration into urban areas may use a partner language other than Spanish depending on the situation. Dual language programs use the partner language for at least 50% of the instructional day during elementary years (Espino-Calderon and Minaya-Rowe, 2003). For the purposes of early retention and efficacy, dual language programs typically begin in kindergarten or first grade, usually extended for at least five years; although research is showing increased efficacy when continued through middle and senior high schools. The programs themselves aim for bilingualism (speaking fluently in two languages), biliteracy (reading and writing in two languages fluently), equal mastery of grade level curriculum at least equal to that of non-dual learners, and cross-cultural competency. Dual language programs as a formal part of the curriculum are relatively new, but research has shown that beginning them early in a child's education experience actually enhances more than just language competency in studied populations -- the children of dual language programs operate on a higher level of cognition and have an easier time learning tasks non-related to either core language (Collier and Thomas, 2004)

Major Types of Dual Language Programs - There are four main types of dual language programs. Each of these programs or a derivation thereof, is dependent upon the particular demographics of the district, overall learning goals, and expertise in the classroom. The term "dual language" is also often used interchangeable with "two-way immersion." The older term, now out of favor with the academic community, "bilingual education" is still sometimes used to refer to any program that uses two languages within the confines of instruction (Freeman, 2001). The major types of dual language programs are:

Development, or maintenance, bilingual programs. These types of programs mainly enroll students who are native speakers of the non-native language; entering into a U.S. classroom and needing an immersion environment in order to quickly build their English skills and adapt to a new set of cultural norms.

Two-way (bilingual) immersion programs. These types of classes enroll a balance of native English speakers and native speakers of the partner language. Typically, the native English speakers have tested on the bright side and need external stimuli, or, for cultural reasons, need to adopt and speak/read/write a second language.

Foreign language immersion, language immersion, or one-way immersion. These classes primarily enroll native English speakers, are intense and designed to move a student through a program quicker or prepare for study abroad. The military and defense industries also use this type of program.

Heritage language programs. These programs enroll students who are dominant in English but who have parents, grandparents, or caregivers that only speak the partner language. Emphasis in this case is often on using the student to help acculturate the adult (White, 2003).

Curriculum wise, dual language programs differ from transitional bilingual programs that operate by transitioning students from their native language into English, usually within a 2-3-year period. At times this is referred to as "subtractive bilingualism" since the first language is usually lost or diminished/discouraged as more and more English acquired. Dual language programs, though, are considered "additive bilingualism." This important paradigm difference means that the student's primarily language is developed and maintained, very much encouraged, as a second language is added (Soltero, 2005).

To be clear, another type of program that is not considered part of the dual language curriculum is foreign language education in which students receive less than 50% of the day studying the new language, and often only study language arts and literature in that language as opposed to complete content area immersion with regular classrooms subjects -- mathematics, science, and social studies, for example, in the partner language (Morgenstern, 2009)

Major Variations within Dual Language Programs -- Two main variations that generalize the type and robustness of the dual language program are the time spent in the partner language and the division of languages within the program. The time spent in the partner language can either be full immersion, or 90/10. Usually in the early primary grades, this approach uses only 10% English, the remaining time in the partner language, gradually adjusting the ratio until, by grades 3-4 the ratio is about equal. Partial immersion, or 50/50 programs, teach half each core language regardless of the level of the student (Soltero). There is no definitive research indicating that one method far outshines another, although some research indicates that students who spend more time in the partner language do better in that language. Additionally, language minority students in the United States whose native language is not English do far better academically when their native language is supported and developed (Howard, Christian and Genessee, 2003).

Full immersion (90/10) programs usually begin literacy education for students K-1 and then add formal literacy in English in grades 2-3. Children do not need to relearn how to read in English; the instructor helps them transfer their literacy skills from one language to another; synergistically it is hoped. Other 90/10 programs separate students by native language and offer initial literacy instruction in the core native language, adding second language literacy by grades 2-3. In programs that focus on partial immersion, also called 50/50 programs, basic language instruction occurs either simultaneously or in a way that segregates learning by language for certain core courses (Grendler, 2008).

In higher grades, middle school and high school, students from several divergent dual language programs are mainstreamed into larger classes. These programs typically offer dual language students the opportunity to take language arts and at least one content area in the partner language, preparing many for AP exams in one or more fields. The Division of language is typically done in two ways: language division by schedule and language division by instructor. Both are, again, dependent upon resources and district policies (Power and Hubbard, 2001).

Language division by schedule operates under a chronological rubric. In a dual language program, the students speak and study in one language at a time, and the times for each individual language are specifically defined in order to avoid confusion. Within a program, though, there can be great variation on the specifics of scheduling. All types of variations are possible -- by time, day, week or week groupings -- there are even some schools who segregate language learning by morning and afternoon, and then switch. Similarly, some teach one subject in one language, the other course in another language; and then switch. The point is there is no hard and fast rule that works for every situation; instead, the specifics are almost always done by grade, curriculum, and/or cognitive ability (Freeman, 2001).

Language division by instructor: A dual language program often implements their programs either using a Side by Side or Self-Contained template. The Self-Contained class has one teacher per group of students and switches language depending on how he or she feels. Side by Side classrooms have multiple areas in which languages are switched between instructors, who teach different core classes in different languages (Cloud, 2000).

The Role of Schools in Dual Language Learning - Many non-U.S. students are fortunate in that they live in areas in which it is easier to find opportunities to acquire bilingual, or even multilingual, competence by living in a multilingual community. Often, children acquire these languages on the street. However, in the United States, and much of North America, a single language dominates and the ability to learn other languages is quite limited. Because of this, schools have an extremely important role to play by providing opportunities for children to expand their horizons and glean competency in additional languages. Schools are the center for a child's reading and literacy competency; and the value of a second or third language, be it related to business, personal or cultural reasons, cannot be overemphasized (Culatta, 2006).

Specifically for Ahmad, additive bilingualism is critical to the successful implementation of dual language learning. It is the belief that students are capable of fully acquiring one, two, or even more languages. It is also the belief that the addition of a second language in the classroom will not retard development of the native language. Similarly, the continued development and maintenance of the native language will not detract from learning another core language. Actually, research shows that maintenance of the native language of a minority student will improve their grasp of English (Howard and Sugarman, 2006). Additionally, the beneficial effects of additive bilingualism are linked to social psychological, psycholinguistic and educational issues. Supportive learning environments enhance other learning, and expressing cultural heritage is a fundamental part of a child's social identity. Additive dual language programs take advantage of linguistic transfer, and additive bilingualism helps establish high standards of achievement and relevancy within the classroom (Genesse, 2003).

Content-Based Language Instruction -- Almost every study in dual language learning supports the active integration of content appropriate curriculum within the instructional process. Language instruction is integrated into every content area, just as it would be if this were a single unit school in a foreign country. In younger children, for instance, the use of content-based instruction stimulates the natural cognitive abilities of the young brain, allowing a greater sense of authenticity and relevance (Tankersley, 2003).