International broadcasting systems and approaches

International Broadcasting

-in the U.S.A. And Abroad-

It is the purpose of this work to examine and evaluate the impacts that international broadcasting has had on the cultural, political, and economical landscape of society as well as in terms of the impacts effected by law, communication, advertising or public relations. Sources for referencing in this document are explicitly academic and professional journal works.

In the year 1961 America's President John F. Kennedy appointed a young Chicago lawyer, who incidentally was not a member of the Washington D.C. "elite" to the position of Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, commonly known as the "FCC" or the "Commission." Newton N. Minow was the youngest individual in history to fill the position. (Cate, 2003)

With just a few words Minow changed the way that the American citizens viewed the broadcast industry as he said:

"I have confidence in your health [but] not in your product. Your industry possesses the most powerful voice in America. . . I invite you all to sit down in from of your television set when your station goes on the air and stay there without a book, magazine, newspaper, profit-and-loss sheet or rating book to distract you -- and keep your eyes glued to that set until the station signs off. You will see a procession of game shows, violence audience participation shows, formula comedies about totally unbelievable families, blood and thunder, mayhem, violence, sadism, murder, Western badmen, Western good men, private eyes, gangsters, more violence and cartoons and endlessly, commercials. Many screaming, cajoling and offending. And most of all boredom. I can assure you that you will observe a vast wasteland."

"But when television is bad, nothing is worse."

Minow was the initiator of a national debate that is so long running in nature that it continues even yet in the year 2004. Thirty-five years old, well-versed in matters of legal import, Minow issues a challenge to broadcasters even into the corridors of the future, into today for the higher pursuit of more excellent programming with more freedom of choice on a wholesome and positive level. Minow stayed only two years and then left the Federal Communications Commission and went to work for The Encyclopedia Britannica as Executive Vice President and General Counsel.

II. A New Era in the Federal Communications Commission:

Minow had stated at the time of his appointment to the F.C.C. that, "I believe television is going to test the modern world, and this new opportunity to see beyond the range of our visions, we shall discover either a new and unbearable disturbance to the general peace, or a saving radiance in the sky." In 1991, the answering remembrance of his statement was heard as Minow said that, "That radiance falls unevenly today. It is still a dim light in education. It has not fulfilled its potential for children. It has neglected the needs of public television. And in the electoral process it casts a dark shadow." Minow wrote a book entitled, "Abandoned in the Wasteland: Children, Television and the First Amendment." It was written in conjunction with Craig LeMay who joined with Minow for the purpose of enlightening and empowering parents concerning the accessibility of unsuitable programming in relation to children's viewing proposed federal legislation.

Minow's speech had created an uproar, offending and maddening the industry. The public response was, according to Mary Ann Watson, a communications scholar, "quick and abundant and overwhelmingly positive." Minow was the Associated Press poll "top newsmaker" for the year 1961. Appearing on television more times than any Kennedy except J.F.K., Minow was instantaneously a celebrity.

In the Administrative Science Quarterly in a written work by Tom King

, King states that the shift within the interorganizational field with passage of time in relation to the U.S. broadcasting industry historically was that of which he wrote in his work. In reporting what had been researched King identified three endogenous of nature, mechanisms of change and did so in manner that revealed beyond the mechanism of words concerning that which King referred to as "phenomenon" averring to the rabbit hole of elements of deep import that needed made sense of. After the research and identification of all the players, elements of competition in the pressurized industry, resulting was the conclusion stated that "the organization of a field is not permanent, but is contingent upon institutionalized definitions of what is being transacted. King states that the research is a 'historical analysis" of the broadcasting industry. The research framed three questions as follows:

1. How are new exchange practices started?

2. What participants introduced them?

3. How are new exchange practices started?

4. What theoretical mechanisms can explain the introduction and later the establishment of practice?

Keywords were expressed in the "tools" of "knowledge' and "technology" or "methods that endow capabilities to agents in a field for establishing and maintaining their transactions, or that of technology." Technology," states King is cumulative and expands the potential actions of participants in maintaining their transactions. King explored the problems that were expressed through questions as to who, if indeed anyone was the 'owner' of the airwaves? This question expressed the ambiguity that surrounded the rights of that spectrum. However, the Navy soon regaled what had been a long time project through urging the government to take control of communication based on "a matter of national defense." Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce held that neither private vested interests or the state either one held ownership of the airwaves but spoke in analogy which gave comparison of the waterways as being in the same realm as that of the airwaves. Hoover's belief which he had penned was adopted as the Radio Act of 1924. Thus, in the year of 1925 those regulations with staying power vested in the regulatory agencies of the Department of Commerce and the Federal Trade Commission. Progressing into a patent pool, exclusive manufacturing among GE, AT& T, and International Radio & Telegraph as well as Westinghouse, together with KDKA Radio Station. These entities created the Radio Corporation of American, which is commonly known by simply RCA.

III. Time Periods Inclusive of the Radio Age:

The Time-Period Increments of the radio industry were as follows:

1920-1934: Industry beginning and commercialization of industry.

1935-1949: The "golden-age" of radio and the growth of the networks.

1935-1950: The Transformation form exchange of Programs to Exchange of

1950 -1965: Rise of local independent stations and decline of the national networks.

However, before that is reviewed this work will return to a time further back around the year 1927.

IV. The United States was not the Leader of the Pack in the Beginning:

In the year of 1927, Great Britain had surpassed the United States for several preceding years. "Section 12 of the Radio Act, 1927" barred foreign nationals from obtaining a radio licenses and limited the direct ownership of broadcasting corporations with the limitation of 20%. This section was incorporated as a part of the Communications Act, 1934,-word for word as Section 310 and its "scope was broadened in attempt to restrict investment by holding companies."

The foreign ownership freedoms stay intact for the most part even being "incorporated in to the Telecommunications Act of 1996 however, the Act repealed the restrictions on the nationality of officers and directors."

Targeting a point-to point service, wireless found as its main customer the navies of various countries, shipping companies as well as some larger corporations." Wireless communications were intended for the purpose of confidentiality in communication for purposes such as coordination of fleet maneuvers and the like. (Headrick, 1991). Reportedly amateurs were giddy at the signals received from around the world. Research shows that telegraphy and the early broadcasts experiences co-existed with broadcasting lagging far behind in terms of primary radio technological uses."

(Douglas, 1989)

The United States Naval Department took a "consistent interest" in development of radio policy with their role being one that was crucial in the formulation of policies in the radio and broadcasting industry. From the year of 1910 the technology fell into the jurisdiction of the Navy, specifically the Navy's Bureau of Steam Engineering which is where the origination of the idea for imposing restrictions on licenses based on the nationality origin of individuals. Two bills were introduced into the U.S. Congress during 1911 that in essence asked for a requirement to be set for ratio stations obtaining of a license form the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, (.3620 or H.R. 15357, however neither bill included any foreign ownership elements It was during the January 1912 hearings on the House bill that Lieutenant Commanders David W. Todd, officer in charge of The Bureau of Steam Engineering and radio divisions made recommendation that both license holders and operators of radio stations should be American citizens. (Radio Communication 1912)"

V. 1920-1934 Radio Industries Beginning:

The radio industry started with a total of 476 radio stations in 1923 with 324 of those being owned by radio manufacturers or 47%, with 20% ownership of radio stations being owned by commercialized establishments, art dealers and music stores and the remaining 162 stations were amateur or privately owned. That number topped out at 748 during the years spanning 1923 to 1926 however, by 1927 only 72 were left remaining and a mere 18 left in existence by the year of 1934. (Eyang, 1936)

It wasn't until the end of the decade of the roaring twenties that there was a determination accepted in terms of value regulation. The early radio organization was programming response to the input of the consumer, however, it soon became the practice to use input in advertising that was in expectation of creating a demanded or marketed response from consumers. The Broadcasting, funded by the networks and stations as well as serving as the switching terminal for all the intersecting communications in the industry, was also known as The Crossley Rating with the task of tallying the opinions within and without the organization.

Broadcasting was comprised of six major groups of activities and special services, which were broadcasting, financing, production, distribution and listening.

This time period was one that is expressed in the terms "differentiation and growth" The stations, networks, station representatives and talent agents grew in numbers during this time period in broadcast history, however the numbers of manufacturers of radios saw a decrease.

VI. 1935-1950: Exchanges and Advances in the Radio Industry:

The major networks of this time period consisted of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), The Mutual Broadcasting Network (MBS & CBS) and that of Columbia. During this time period the major networks "established dominance and control within the industry and even upon those who would enter the industry. Television and the Federal Communications Commission regulations managed to choke radio out and the communication tool of the masses was that of television. America's love affair with radio had been led astray by the television which left the radio stations seeking a format that would attract a wide enough audience that advertisers would be interested in once again hawking their wares over the airwaves. Thus were born into existence the "deejays" or "disc-jockeys" that played records and charmed audiences. King stated that this type of localization brought specialization to the radio-broadcasting world. The advertisers began to buy promotions time for record advertisements and a beneficial alliance came into being. The record producers provided 'free' records for the radio stations programming use and the radio stations gave the records producers free advertising for their records. This was a lucrative arrangement for both parties and the radio became the hottest advertising spot surpassing even that of the network sponsored advertising. Instead of the 'mass' audience the new norm for the day because that of a diversified and segmented audience.

VII. Radio Broadcasting on an International Basis:

In the year of 1944, on June 6 the storming of Normandy Beach by Allied forces was occurring at the same approximate time as the completion of the Voice of America's (VOA's) Bethany Relay Station just north of Cincinnati. The events of the Ohio Relay Facility aired on the news along with the news of Germany's defeat and the collapse of the Third Reich. (Heil, 2004)

"Since the fall of Communism in Europe" writes Radio Netherlands veteran media commentators Andy Sennitt, "U.S. Operated International services have mushroomed ... The list gets longer and longer. At the same time, the Voice of America has been progressively weakened, and the rumors about more cuts to the English service turn out to be true, that process is set to continue, maybe accelerate. The Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media reported in 1998 performed a study of the utilization of electronic media and especially that of satellite broadcasting. (DBS)."

(Boyd 1998) In 1949 the arrangement for International Telegraph and Telephone (ITT) to build a (AM) medium wave radio transmitter and studio in Jeddah. Faisal, the King's son was appointed as the one to be in charge of the station. During the 1960's the Egyptian radio services and the royal family of Saudi experienced hostilities propelling expansion of transmitter and programming during that period.

Broadcasting was growing by leaps and bounds when the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers constructed the first television stations in the year of 1965. Test transmissions with limited experimental programming was started in Jeddah and Riyadh at the stations as well as other cities when national microwave and satellite networking came into existence. The Arabic countries used the wealth and oil it possessed to construct two national television networks in the country.

Whitley (1994) among others has noted the fact that when organizations attempt to expand beyond their national boundaries they implicitly take with them their nations history of socioeconomic choices. Their approach on the international scene renders them to become representatives of their homeland.

(Paraphrased) "Globalization, states Baughn (1998) citing Braman, 2002; Curran & Park, 2000; Morris & Waisbord, 2001, "has unleashed forces that call into question the effacy of the Westphilian nation-state. Challenged from above by globalization, from below by ethic particularism, and from the side by other states, the nation-state is viewed by some as a threaded form of political organization. In line with that trend, the nation-sate has recently emerged as an explicit theoretical and empirical concern in international communication scholarship."

Historically states have always been very concerned with elements and methods of the mass media due to the fact that media is able to "transcend borders" and "breach sovereignty." Communication's transformation from that of a "process of transportation" to a "process of transmission" has served as a type of affirmation of fears of the state in relation to losing control of the internal culture and information. (Paraphrased)

Debates between the citizen class and the consumer class, which one must ask how the difference can be discerned, has only serviced to muddy the waters. That sentiment is expressed by the 1998 statement of Costera-Meije which in essence says that the 'realms of citizenship and consumption are not isolated or clear." Worthy of note is the recent controversial emerging theme of 'cultural hybridity' and that has become "one of the latest imports into international communication scholarship." (Rodriguez & Murphy, 1997; Draidy, 1999, 2002).