Juvenile Delinquency What Is Delinquency?

Juvenile Delinquency

What is delinquency?

In legal terminology juvenile delinquency refers to "...behavior of children and adolescents that in adults would be judged criminal under law. "("Juvenile Delinquency," 2004)

However, the definition of what constitutes a juvenile vary in the United States, "...the maximum age being set at 14 years in some states and as high as 21 years in others. " ("Juvenile Delinquency," 2004) Crimes committed by juveniles range from theft, which is the most common, to more serious offences such as rape and murder.

In general there has been an increase in the rate of juvenile crime in recent years which is a cause of concern among various authorities and social workers. For example, the figures for 1994 indicated that 18.6% of all people arrested nationwide for a crime were under the age of 18..." (Parenting Education 2004) In a study of juvenile crime, Psychosocial variables associated with recidivism among adolescent males: a 3-year investigation, the authors state that, "In 1997, juveniles accounted for 37% of all burglary arrests. 30% of robbery arrests, 24% of weapon arrests... 14% of murder attempts and 14% of drug arrests." (Katsiyannis et al., 2004) In another study entitled School violence: prevalence and intervention strategies for at-risk adolescents, it was found that "Violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny / theft, and arson) are at some of the highest levels in history for adolescents. (Cirillo et al., 1998, p. 319)

There are various surveys and reports that show clearly that the number of juvenile offenders is increasing. "The increased volume and changing composition of juvenile delinquency caseloads have overloaded the juvenile justice system...The juvenile justice system must be equipped to address the full range of juvenile problem behaviors. Often the presenting offense is merely the tip of the iceberg..." (Provide Immediate Intervention..) This has also brings to the fore the question of solutions to this problem and the increasing need to find ways of means of reducing the incidence of this social and psychological phenomenon.

There are various research studies which indicate the seriousness of juvenile delinquency in the United States. For example, the following quotation from Onwudiwe (2004) illustrates some of the issues at stake in the increasing incidence of juvenile delinquency in America. "Although progress has been made in past decades, the plight of youths in contemporary American society is still one of this country's most ominous dilemmas, conspicuously different from the decadence that their predecessors faced a century ago. (Onwudiwe, 2004, p.153) This study also states that the increase in violence among the youth has resulted in problems for the authorities and with regard to the methods of dealing with the issue.

Today, American youths experience violence, both as victims and perpetrators, at alarming rates. At the same time, authorities are quick to recommend retribution -- in the form of punishment -- in order to control the trends in juvenile offending. In some cases, adolescents charged with offenses are even transferred from juvenile courts to adult criminal courts or to other major diversionary systems, even as study after study shows that incarcerating youths in adult facilities may lead to further victimization and exposure to more serious criminal careers. (Onwudiwe, 2004, p.153)

The implications of the above research are that the increase in delinquency can also lead to a concomitant increase in later crime in adulthood. Another enlightening fact is that, "... scholars have noted that most chronic juvenile offenders start their delinquent careers before the age of 12, that murder rates for American teens are six times higher in the United States than in Canada, and that females are more likely than males to be murdered by a friendly associate." (Onwudiwe, 2004, p.153)

The literature also indicates various aspects that characterize the violent juvenile offender. The offender is more often male and, often "displays early minor behavior problems before age 12 that lead to more serious delinquent acts, such as authority conflicts, stubborn behavior, defiance or disobedience and authority avoidance." (Loeber, R. 2000) Other demographics are that violent juvenile offenders tend to be more often encountered among African- American youth than among other cultural and ethnic groups. These factors may also be related to socio-economic background. (Loeber, R. 2000) However it must also be noted that these demographics are open to debate and are often a source of controversy,

The importance of this topic.

The above views and statistics are a growing cause of concern among social workers as well as criminologists and indications are that the incidents and the concomitant effects of juvenile delinquency are set to increase in the future. This is outlined by Onwudiwe (2004) and reflects similar reports for many other studies on the subject.

A the turbulence and tribulations that juveniles face today constitute major concerns for criminologists and the criminal justice system. Considering that 72.6 million Americans were under the age of 18 in 2001 -- an increase of about 300,000 from 2000 -- this fact is rendered even more important. If this growth trend continues, the U.S. population under the age of 18 will climb to 80.3 million by 2020. Although about two-thirds of arrested juveniles are referred to courts that have jurisdiction over them, the solutions to their problems probably do not lie solely in either law enforcement or court systems.

Onwudiwe)

The study of delinquency is therefore important for a number of reasons. One of these is that the adult criminal often has a history of juvenile delinquency. ("Juvenile Delinquency," 2004) Identifying and dealing with juvenile delinquency therefore becomes an important aspect of dealing with the later development of criminal tendencies.

The above point relates especially to the development and implementation of intervention strategies. This is especially the case when it comes to violent offenders who have been found to start their criminal activities at an early age. This important point is stressed in various studies on the subject. " For example, youth who are brought to court for "...offenses at age 14.5 typically began to have minor behavioral problems at age seven, progressed to moderately serious behavior problems at age 9.5 and committed serious delinquent offenses before age 12." (Loeber, R. 2000)

Another reason for the importance of this topic is that the study of juvenile delinquency has implications in terms of our school system and educational process. This refers to the fact that there are numerous reports which indicate that there has been an increase in violent crimes in our schools. For example one study indicates that, "Every year, 3 million young people in the United States fall victim to crimes at school. Almost 2 million of these incidents involve violence." (The Challenge of School Violence)

There are also figures which suggest that there has been an alarming increase in serious violent crime at all levels of schooling in the country; which obviously has a negative impact on the school atmosphere and learning environment. "...in two recent academic years, a total of 85 young people died violently in U.S. schools. Seventy-five percent of these incidents involved firearms." (The Challenge of School Violence) One study entitled: School violence: prevalence and intervention strategies for at-risk adolescents

(Cirillo et al., 1998) found that "Violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny / theft, and arson) are at some of the highest levels in history for adolescents.

(Cirillo et al., 1998, p. 319) In a report from the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) It was stated that "...57% of public elementary and secondary school principals stated that one or more incidents of crime or violence were reported to the police " and " "...10% of all public schools had one or more serious violent crimes (murder, rape, sexual battery, suicide, physical attack or fight with a weapon, or robbery)" (Kelly M.)

General Causes and Conditions of Juvenile Delinquency

There are many causes and suggested reasons for the problem of juvenile delinquency. These cover a wide range of factors and include "....a complex of psychological, social, and economic factors." ("Juvenile Delinquency," 2004) There are also numerous studies that refer to social environmental and economic factors as central precipitative elements in the development of delinquent behavior in the youth. This usually refers to substandard or poor environments. On the other hand, as will be discussed in this section, delinquency is also prevalent in more affluent neighborhoods and environments. This fact also points to the importance of cultural and psychological aspects which must also be included in the overall understanding of the causes of juvenile delinquency.

The important issue in terms of solutions to delinquency is that the underlying problems that engender delinquency and criminal behavior in the young have to be addressed before any real intervention programs or social work strategies can be implemented.

Environmental, social and cultural issues.

As mentioned above, there is a general perception that juvenile delinquency is closely related to social and economic conditions. This is true to a certain extent and the "culture of poverty" has been seen as breeding ground for delinquent behavior. The pattern of increased delinquency seen in inner city neighborhoods and less economically viable areas of the country emphasizes the reality of this perception.

Studies indicate that "... A higher than average incidence of delinquency occurs among youngsters of the poorest social standing and with the lowest performance at school..." (Jarvelin et al., 1994, p. 230)

Similarly, studies also note that neighborhood influences on development was determinant on factors such as "...collective socialization, peer-group influence, and institutional capacity." (Sampson, Morenoff & Gannon-Rowley, 2002. p 443) Generally studies like the above present a negative picture of environmental and neighborhood influences.

The above analysis is also related to cultural issues such as the formation of gangs which is a factor that is related to delinquency in poverty-stricken areas. "The gang, a source of much delinquency, has been a common path for adolescents, particularly in the inner cities. "("Juvenile Delinquency," 2004) This also refers to the cultural and social norms in certain areas, where values and standards may accommodate behavior that is generally seen as delinquent. "Delinquent behaviour often occurs in social settings in which the norms for acceptable behaviour have broken down. Under such circumstances many of the common rules that deter people from committing socially unacceptable acts may lose their relevance for some members of society." (Juvenile Delinquency)

This aspect can also be related to urbanization and to instances where traditional values and worldviews are interrupted and changed. "Geographical analysis suggests that countries with more urbanized populations have higher registered crime rates than do those with strong rural lifestyles and communities." (Juvenile Delinquency)

Peer influences are another cause of delinquent behavior. Many experts advocate research and understanding of peer group behavior patterns as well as socialization issues in understanding the causes of delinquency. This is an important aspect as it also relate to another causative factor in delinquent behavior; namely dysfunctional and broken families. This is a central contemporary issue as there has been an increase in the number of broken homes in recent year and this has been shown to have a concomitant impact on levels of juvenile delinquency and criminal behavior. In this respect peer groups may be a form of compensation for the negative effects of broken and dysfunctional homes. "Quite often delinquent groups can counterbalance or compensate for the imperfections of family and school. A number of studies have shown that juvenile gang members consider their group a family. For adolescents constantly facing violence, belonging to a gang can provide protection within the neighbourhood." (Juvenile Delinquency)

Psychological issues also play a role in understanding and dealing with delinquency. It should be remembered that the psychological, social, cultural and environmental factors are not separate and are usually intertwined to form a complex reality, which is the real cause of delinquency. For instance, while most delinquent behavior can be related to poor economic conditions, it must also be borne in mind that this aspect is intertwined with sociological and psychological aspects that together create the conditions for delinquent behavior to exist. " An inability to cope with the demands of society and the external stress affecting a child with a certain kind of incapacity may have increased the propensity for normbreaking behavior in such cases." (Jarvelin et al.)

As has already been briefly mentioned, an aspect that is crucial in the understanding of delinquency is the complex issue of the structure and function of the family. The also refers to the complex interrelationship between parents, child behavior and neighborhood. Studies show that children who are not supervised tend to have more behavioral problems and are more prone to delinquent behavior.

A factor of that should be considered is that very often there are variables that do not conform to generally accepted patterns when it comes to the causes of this problems. While it commonly assumed that delinquent behavior is associated with poor economic conditions in studies show that "rich kids" are increasingly showing criminal tendencies. (Carmichael, A.)

3. Solutions and preventative measures.

One of the most common ways of dealing with the problem of juvenile delinquency in society has been the use of legal procedures and the court system. However the treatment of juveniles in the court and judicial system has come in for a certain amount of criticism in recent years. This is mainly due to the fact that there have been an increasing number of juvenile criminals who have been treated in adult courts.

Fear of juvenile crime in the United States has reversed the long-accepted practice of treating young offenders in special juvenile courts. Thousands of children annually are now being transferred "automatically," without judicial review, from juvenile court jurisdiction to adult criminal court and into adult corrections. These transfers place children into a court setting in which they are at a disadvantage at every stage of the process. Children who are incarcerated in adult facilities are at great risk. Those who are convicted but not imprisoned may still suffer long lasting negative consequences.

Prosecuting Juveniles in Adult Court...)

As the above quotation indicates, this process has increased concern that the legal system is in many instances increasing the long-term negative consequences of juvenile crime and delinquency. This is exacerbated by the decreasing age of criminal responsibility in the United States and Canada. (Roberts, Stalans, Indermaur & Hough, 2003, p. 119) This in turn has led to many questions about the viability and the effects of the court and judicial system in dealing with juveniles. "To what extent does a trial in criminal court and/or incarceration in adult prisons promote or retard community protection, juvenile offenders' accountability and the development of competencies in juvenile offenders? " (Redding, 1999) This question is also related to the negative impact of the court system on the psyche of the young offender.

As a consequence there are numerous alternative methods that have been suggested with regard to the prevention and treatment of juvenile offenders. These range from improvements in the court system and a new way of dealing with juveniles through specialized courts (Anderson, 1998, p.72), to interventions that would possibly reduce the high incidence of this problem among the youth. One suggestion is a court"... whose goal would be to help organize the increasingly complex task of child rearing by intervening in situations where breakdowns in child-rearing capacities have occurred." (Anderson, 1998, p 72)

One methodology that has been explored and which has produced positive results in terms of social work strategies is the involvement of all parties and community integration in addressing this problem. This means that the schools, community structures and the police and legal institutions become involved in an organized strategy to deal the various causes of delinquency. For example, "Community groups and businesses can work with schools to create "safe zones," for students on their way to and from school. Stores and offices can also identify themselves as "safe spaces," where young people can find protection if they are being threatened." (The Challenge of School Violence)

There are also wide ranges of interventions that can be applied and these are especially effective when implemented at an early age, in order to prevent the development of more complex causative factors later on. A study by Sprague and Walker (2000) states that the signs of possible violent behavior are often evident at an early age. "These signs are reflected in the behavioral characteristics of many at-risk children at the point of school entry and become elaborated during the elementary school years. These warning signs vary substantially in terms of how well they predict or are associated with juvenile violence; all should be of serious concern..." (Sprague and Walker, 2000, p. 367)

In essence the most effective method of preventing and dealing with this problem is one that is integrative and holistic. This involves strategies dealing with exercises relating to the consequences and alternatives to violence as well as role-playing activities. (www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001502686"Cirillo et al., 1998, p. 319) Family and school intervention strategies have also had a high success rate. The aim is to include parents and teachers in the overall strategy. Other integrative strategies that have a positive effect are those that utilize peer role models as well as psychodrama. These have been shown to have had some success in reducing violent interactions among adolescents. (Hammond, W.R. 1990).

4. The Role of Social Work in Juvenile Delinquency

The previous sections of this paper have already explored some avenues that are appropriate for the intervention of social workers; particularly with regard to coordinating a more holistic approach to the problem. There is no doubt that the social workers can play a vital role in the prevention of juvenile delinquency. There is also little doubt that there are many obstacles that have to be overcome in dealing in this problem area.

The increased involvement of social work follows the trend towards social rather than legislative solutions to the problem of delinquency. There is a growing trend which sees social solutions as being preferable to law enforcement and legal ways of dealing with the problem." A number of United Nations instruments reflect a preference for social rather than judicial approaches to controlling juvenile delinquency. The Riyadh Guidelines assert that the prevention of juvenile delinquency is an essential part of overall crime prevention in society." (Juvenile Delinquency)

While this view places the social worker in the forefront of dealing with delinquency it also places a burden on the social worker to be aware of the various aspects and complexities that are part of the problem of juvenile delinquency. One of the problems that the social worker may experience is the lack of coordination between the different parties and institutions in an integrative intervention strategy.

Early intervention strategies, as noted in the previous sections, are widely regarded a being one of the most effective methods in the prevention of juvenile delinquency. In this regard the social worker involved with family intervention can be instrumental in reducing later delinquent patterns of behavior. An example of the way that the social worker can be involved in the prevention of juvenile delinquency is through programs aimed at reducing gang involvement. "...generally, programmes for preventing gang delinquency should endeavor to integrate children and youth into organized group activities." (Juvenile Delinquency)

Another area in which social work and the social worker can make a valuable contribution is in the application of recreational forms of intervention. Organized recreation can be instrumental in reducing the development of patterns of delinquency. "The popular press and criminology literature concur that there is a relationship between recreation and delinquency prevention" (Munson W. 2002)

However it is possibly in the area of family functioning and dynamics and in the level family interrelationships that social work intervention strategies can n be most effective. As one study points out: "Any professional working in the field of juvenile corrections can attest to the impact of family dynamics in contributing to and maintaining delinquent behavior, and studies have for years linked family dysfunction with the problem of juvenile delinquency...social workers frequently provide intervention with these families. " (Preventing Juvenile Delinquency Through Early Family Intervention)

5. Summary and conclusion

The issue of juvenile delinquency is a problem that is related to a wide complex of sociological, cultural, economic and psychological issues. There are many variables within society that impact on the development and the effects of delinquent behavior. The research on this subject reveals that among these various factors, the influence of peers and the family on the early development in children are of primary importance. Neither can one discount important factors such as economic conditions and environment as major aspects in the development of juvenile delinquency.

Due to the complexity of the causative factors it has been found that court and judicial solutes are only partly successful in dealing with this problem and may in many instances actually increase later criminal activity. There is a general consensus that a more wide- ranging and integrative method of dealing with this issue needs to be implemented. This places onus on the social worker to provide stratgies and practical interventions to deal with the causes and effects of delinquency.