Learning Disabilities in Children Learning

Learning Disabilities in Children

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities (LD) are commonly seen as organically-based disorders affecting a small percentage of children and that interferes with their ability to learn to read and write normally (Sleeter 2010). While there is a common interpretation of why the field emerged when it did, it is dated back to the 1900s when European physicians began to record behavioral and language patters of individuals with known brain damage (2010). The data collected by the first physicians, psychologists and educators is what laid the foundation for study of neurological impairment and how it affected learning behavior (2010). The same data base was used by many frustrated parents of LD children, who organized and lobbied for the establishment of special classes in schools for children with LD.

…parents pushed for LD programs in schools for two main reasons: many did not see their failing children as mentally retarded and therefore refused to accept placement for them in classes for the mentally retarded, and schools did not provide services for children with severe reading or language difficulties unless they qualified for an existing special education category. & #8230;by the late 1950s, medical and psychological research, combined with parental pressure, led to the development of special school programs to meet the needs of a population of children that always had existed but only recently had been recognized. The ideological message in this interpretation is that schools, supported by medical and psychological research, are involved in an historic pattern of progress (Sleeter 2010).

Children with LD are entitled to curriculum and instruction that are both equitable and accessible. Many of the problems in schooling children with LD result from a lack of responsiveness to the individual differences among children, but more and more, schools are learning to accommodate these differences. In order for educators to be able to offer both equitable and accessible instruction, it is important that they know what some of the characteristics of learning disabilities in children are and how their special needs can be met. Some of the characteristics of children with learning disabilities include problems in reading, writing, oral language, math, study skills, and social skills. In fact, LD children are identified in part by comparing their performance in reading, writing, or oral language with norms for children for their age or grade level. These are the norms that become the standards in assisting in determining who is classified as LD (Sleeter 2010). Within each category, there are specific issues that will be discussed in this paper. To also be discussed is the way that these characteristics influence or impact the students' cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social development as well as their ability to learn and interact with others. Special focus will be given to what special and general education teachers and other personnel can do to work effectively with students who have learning disabilities. The role of parents and administrators will also be discussed, including ways that they can help general educators with teaching children with learning disabilities.

Learning to read is absolutely vital for a child's current and future well-being, yet many children with learning disabilities (LD) have trouble learning how to read. Recent studies have shown that a reading disability is found in as many as 17% of children (Gortmaker, Daly, McCurdy, Persampieri and Hergenrader (2007). Some of the problems can include confusing similar words, difficulty using phonics, and problems reading words with multiple syllables. Slow reading is often common in children with LD and there is sometimes difficulty with adjusting speed of reading to the nature of the reading task. Difficulty with comprehension and retention of material that is read can also prove to be challenging for the child with LD; however, there is oftentimes no problems with material that is presented orally.

In a study conducted by Gortmaker, Daly, McCurdy, Persampieri and Hergenrader (2007) entitled "Improving reading outcomes for children with learning disabilities: using brief experimental analysis to develop parent-tutoring interventions," the researchers found that reading difficulties in children with LD are often compounded by academic losses experienced by students during the summer months. In fact, summer has been associated with a dramatic decrease in reading performance (2007). This is most likely because of a lack -- or complete absence -- of practice with "the very skills that that set their more competent peers apart from them (2007).

One way to counteract these negative effects of decreased reading during summer vacation is to aid parents in implementing empirically based interventions. For the study Gortmaker et al. (2007) assessed the effects of summer parent tutoring on 3 children with LD using empirically derived reading interventions. Brief experimental analyses were used to identify customized reading fluency interventions. Parents were trained to use the intervention strategies with their children. Parents implemented the procedures during parent tutoring sessions in the home environment and results were measured continuously in high-word-overlap and low-word-overlap passages to determine whether generalization occurred. Parent and child satisfaction with the procedures was assessed and results illustrated generalized increases in reading fluency in both high-word-overlap and low-word-overlap passages as a function of parent tutoring.

The results of Gortmaker et al.'s (2007) experiment show that there is parent tutoring during the summer months increases fluency and reading performance as all three students with LD increased with oral reading fluency. The tutoring results were consistently positive across children though some of the limitations were that they study did not manipulate difficulty level of reading materials (students were tutored using stories that they were familiar with from the academic semester) nor did the study examine the effects on students' comprehension.

When it comes to writing, children with LD can struggle with sentence structure as well as grammar. Issues with writing can include consistently misspelling words as well as letter reversals. Sometimes a child with LD may have problems copying information from the board or an overhead projector. In terms of the actual writing process, poorly formed letters, difficulty with spacing words, capital letters, and punctuation are also some common problems that children with LD must face.

Mason and Graham (2008), authors of "Writing instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: programs of intervention research," note that writing performance for a large number of adolescents -- both with and without LD -- is below the required level for success in the United States. They note that, unlike reading, writing intervention research for adolescents with LD is not a well established as research in other areas (like reading) (2008).

In a study conducted by Berninger, Abbott, Augsburger and Garcia (2009), fourth graders with learning disabilities in transcription (handwriting and spelling), LD-TD, and without LD-TD (non-LD children), were compared on three writing tasks -- letters, sentences and essays -- which was different depending on the level of language and when writing by pen or by a keyboard (2009). The two groups did not differ significantly in Verbal IQ, but did in handwriting, spelling, and composing achievement (2009). Though LD-TD and non-LD groups did not differ in total time for producing letters by pen or keyboard, both groups took longer to compose sentences and essays by keyboard than by pen (2009). Students in both groups tended to illustrate the same pattern of results for amount written as a larger sample of typically developing fourth graders who composed longer essays by pen (2009).

Results for that sample, which also included typically developing second and sixth graders, showed that effects of transcription mode vary with level of language and within level of language by grade level for letters and sentences. However, consistently from second to fourth to sixth grade, children wrote longer essays with faster word production rate by pen than by keyboard. In addition, fourth and sixth graders wrote more complete sentences when writing by pen than by keyboard, and this relative advantage for sentence composing in text was not affected by spelling ability (Berninger, Abott, Augsburger & Garcia 2009).

Oral language can also prove to be a challenge for children with LD. Some of the most common problem areas are with memorizing facts, expressing ideas orally (even when the child seems to understand the ideas), describing events or stories in proper sequence, and problems with grammar, inflectional and derivational endings. In a study conducted by Liu, McBride-Chang, Wong, Tardif, Stokes, Fletcher, and Shu (2010), the researchers investigated the extent to which language skills at ages 2 to 4 years could discriminate Hong Kong Chinese poor from adequate readers at age 7 (2010). Forty-one poor readers with a median age of 7.3 years and 41 adequate readers with a median age of 7.35 years were selected. The two groups were matched on age, parents' education levels, and nonverbal intelligence (2010). Different language tasks were tested at different ages: vocabulary checklist and Cantonese articulation test at age 2; nonword repetition, Cantonese articulation, and receptive grammar at age 3; and nonword repetition, receptive grammar, sentence imitation, and story comprehension at age 4 (2010). Dramatic differences between the poor and adequate readers were found in the age 2 vocabulary knowledge, age 3 Cantonese articulation, and age 4 receptive grammar skill, sentence imitation, and story comprehension (2010). Among all the measures, sentence imitation illustrated the greatest power in discriminating poor and adequate readers (2010).

Another study conducted by Flax, Realpe-Bonilla, Roesler, Choudhury, and Benasich (2010) studied the profiles of children with a family history (FH+) of language-learning impairments (LLI) and a control group of children with no reported family history of LLI (FH-) with the hope of identifying "which language constructs (receptive or expressive) and which ages (2 or 3 years) are related to expressive and receptive language abilities, phonological awareness, and reading abilities at ages 5 and 7 years" (2010). The participants consisted of 99 children (40 FH+ and 59 FH-) -- who received the exact same standardized neuropsychological battery at 2,3,5, and 7 years of age. As a group, the FH+ children had dramatically lower scores on all language measures at 2 and 3 years, on selected language and phonological awareness measures at 5 years, and on phonological awareness and nonword reading at 7 years. Language comprehension at 3 years was the single best predictor of later language and early reading for both groups. "These results support past work suggesting that children with a positive family history of LLI are at a significantly greater risk for future language and reading problems through their preschool and early school-age years" (2010). It also showed that language comprehension in the early years is a strong predictor of future language-learning status (2010).

It may seem obvious that children with LD would have trouble with writing, reading and oral language skills, but children with LD can also have challenges with math. Children with LD, as mentioned, sometimes have difficulty memorizing facts, which can prove troublesome when trying to learn mathematics. There is sometimes a confusion or reversal of numbers, number sequence, or operational symbols. Difficulty reading or comprehending word problems may also exist when it comes to mathematics. Problems with reasoning and abstract concepts can also prove to be quite a challenge for the child with LD.

Dulcan (2009) reports that children with difficulties in both writing and matt may reveal poor visual processing. Visuospatial and visual memory deficits may manifest only as behavioral problems thus it is important that LD educators become familiar with these disorders that can effect communication as well as behavior. Dulcan (2009) notes as well that a math disability can be quite difficult to diagnose as mathematics is a rather broad term with consistent standards.

No core deficits or processes have been identified in the mathematics arena. If a child has trouble in reading, then it follows that certain of the language-based math problems will also be difficult. The prevalence of a math disability is estimated to be 5%-6%. Neurobiological studies reveal different neural systems involved with learning mathematics. These systems are best studied in the brain-injured population, and the correlation with the child with a math LD is not yet available. There is strong evidence for the heritability of math difficulties (Dulcan 2009).

In order for schools to help students with learning disabilities improve their achievement in math, educators and policymakers need to better understand what is behind the difficulties in learning math. The federal government breaks down math difficulties as follows: mathematics calculations -- processes that can be problematic include memory, processing issues in visual memory, and visuospatial problems that make lining up columns and understanding base 10 systems difficult; and, mathematics problem solving -- there are various parts of brain functioning that work in solving a math word problem. Reading, understanding language, finding the salient point, doing multiple steps, and using working memory all are needed to solve a math problem. There are several different avenues for a disability to arise in this area (Dulcan 2009).

Dulcan (2009) also expounds on the possibility of social problems associate with math disabilities. For example, children with LD with weaknesses in visualization may also exhibit socialization problems such as poor social judgment, poor spatial awareness, and troubles on the playground. Many times, children with poor visualization have problems self-soothing or falling asleep. Children that cannot memorize math facts should also be checked for working memory deficits that may impact other areas of learning (2009).

Study skills do not always come easily for children with LD. For example, a child with LD may have trouble organizing and managing his or her time. Following directions an also prove to be difficult for the child with LD. Sometimes children with LD have a hard time organizing his or her notes or other written materials. Children with LD may need more time to complete their requirement assignments as well.

One last note to make about children with LD is that their problems do not always simply relate to academics. Children with LD may potentially have difficulties with social skills as well. For example, some children with LD have problems "reading" facial expressions and body language. They may also have difficulty interpreting subtle messages such as sarcasm or irony. Other children with LD may have a hard time following directions and may have problems concerning spatial orientation (this may include getting lost quite easily). Disorientation in time and a difficulty with telling time is also a potential issue for children with LD.

Mayes and Calhoun (2006) found that LD are common in children with clinical disorders. Mayes and Calhoun's (2006) research sample is comprised of 949 children (6 to 16 years). The findings showed that LD percentages were highest for bipolar disorder (79%), ADHD combined type (71%), autism (67%), ADHD inattentive type (66%) and spina bifida (60%). Children with oppositional-defiant disorder, adjustment disorder, anxiety and depression had relatively low LD percentages (18-19%). LD in written expression was twice as common as LD in reading or math. Other findings illustrated that children with neurogenetic disorders should be assessed for possible LD because of the high potential yield and the need to intervene educationally if learning problems exist (2006).

In a study conducted by Maag and Reid (2010), it was found that students with LD achieve statistically higher scores on measures of depression than their peers without LD. What is not yet known, however, is whether students with LD show greater levels of clinical depression than their peers without LD (2010). The researchers suggest that if they do display greater levels of clinical depression, they special education services must address this area of concern. If depression is not clinical, more studies must be done that address the emotional and social issues related to children who have LD. For example, Baumeister, Storch and Geffken (2008), in their study of the nature and psychosocial correlates of peer victimization, show that peer victimization is "positively correlated with parent reports of withdrawal, anxiety, depressive symptoms, social problems, thought problems, attention problems, and disruptive behavior" (2008).