learning theories

Abstract
Theories of learning are critical for informing pedagogical practice and promoting a deeper understanding of human behavior and mental processes. Behaviorism offers corresponding theories of learning that focus mainly on observable and measurable outcomes in performance. Cognitive theories of learning emphasize numerous complex thought processes such as assimilation and accommodation of new material, and also takes into account emotional aspects such as motivation. Behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories seem diametrically opposed but can be easily integrated via a Biblical worldview. Implications for future research include the thoughtful integration of both behavioral and cognitive learning theories into a Biblical worldview to better inform instructional strategies and promote mental health.
Introduction
How people learn has been one of the most pressing issues in the field of psychology. Since its inception, behaviorism has attempted to answer questions related to the nature and function of human learning via experimental research and empiricism, while avoiding the more subjective and nuanced nature of how learning occurs. Cognitive psychology has not necessarily eschewed the positivist approach used in behaviorism, and does rely on empiricism to ground theory. However, cognitive theories of learning showcase how the mind stores and access information and also how the creative thinking helps the individual formulate new thoughts, with emphasis not just on behavioral outcomes but also on outcomes such as material mastery and the acquisition of new knowledge.
Historical Development
Behavioral Theories of Learning
One of the root fields of psychology, behaviorism emerged around the early twentieth century to provide the first conscientious body of knowledge on human behavior based on empirical research design methods. Behaviorism has had a strong impact on the field of psychology, particularly in the realm of learning theory. Behavioral learning theories focus on the organism’s reactions to stimuli in the environment, which cause conditioned responses. Over time, the individual can change his or her behavior via classical or operant conditioning. Key theorists like Watson and Pavlov laid the foundations for early behavioral theories of learning, based on the fundamental concepts of stimuli and responses (Ormrod, 2016). Other central issues in behavioral theories of learning include behavioral modeling, in which the person learns by observing and imitating others (Reimann, 2018).
Cognitive Theories of Learning
Cognitive theories of learning postdated behavioral theories, evolving in the middle of the twentieth century. Researchers turned away from the positivist approaches behaviorists insisted upon and welcomed inquiry into mental processes and the nature of consciousness. Armed with new methodologies that added substance and validity to theoretical claims, cognitive psychologists applied empirical methods to the mental processes associated with learning (Ormrod, 2016). The early theories of learning within the realm of cognitive psychology focused on language skills acquisition, yielding the field of psycholinguistics (Ormrod, 2016). Subsequent theorists fused social psychology with cognitive psychology to show how people construct their self-concept and identity, forming worldviews and belief systems. Cognitive theories of learning showcase features of mental processing as diverse as memory processing and attention. Social learning theory is also linked to cognitive theories of learning. Historically, cognitive theories of learning have also informed research into artificial intelligence and related fields.
Key Concepts
Key concepts in behavioral theories of learning include the following. First, behavioral theories of learning imply “equipotentiality,” which is the assumption that all sentient beings learn in the same way, via conditioning and responses to external stimuli (Ormrod, 2016, p. 52). Pavlov’s classic experiments with dogs salivating at the sound of a bell ringing, even in the absence of food, applied just as well to humans who can be conditioned to respond to a stimulus similar to a bell—even a smell--with a specific behavioral response. All human beings can be taught using behavioral strategies: universality is a key concept in the cluster of behavioral theories of learning.
Behavioral theories of learning also discount subjectivity in human learning, instead claiming that learning occurs in predictable and objective ways instead. In fact, behavioral theories of learning usually have built into them the assumption that intervening variables can be isolated and accounted for in clinical research. Intervening variables might include socioeconomic factors, identity, personality, and emotions. Behavioral theories of learning seek direct causal relationships between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses, with learning outcomes that are strictly measurable as opposed to conceptual or procedural. While not all behavioral learning theories assume such a “black box” perspective on human learning, by definition all ultimately seek changes in behavioral outcomes rather than on mental or emotional states (Ormrod, 2016, p. 53).
According to most behavioral theories of learning, learning in general can be facilitated by reward systems, such as by offering a gift, or via punishment: the essence of operant conditioning. These reward systems are known as positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is an actual reward given upon the successful completion of a task, whereas negative reinforcement refers to a punishment—or the removal of a positive stimulus. Behavioral theories can be especially useful for simple, straightforward learning activities. Another main concept in behavioral theories of learning is that human beings learn based on extrinsic motivations such as being driven to work for money or study for good grades, rather than intrinsic motivation such as a desire for fulfillment or self-actualization. The latter concept related to the importance of intrinsic motivation in human learning is more central to cognitive theories of learning.
Cognitive theories of learning promote a more complex understanding of how human beings process new knowledge and develop new skills. Some of the core concepts of cognitivism or cognitive psychology include the uniqueness of the human mind (Ormrod, 2016). One of the things that sets apart cognitive theories of learning from behavioral theories is the fact that cognitive theories cannot be applied equally to other members of the animal kingdom. Cognitive theories of learning also do not focus on behavioral outcomes necessarily, but on interior mental and even emotional processes.
The theories of cognitive psychology also show how learning is constructed over time, as people assimilate new information, organize it in categories that are dependent on other psychological and sociological variables like culture and self-concept, and then integrate new learning into their belief system. Like behaviorism, cognitive psychology does stress the importance of empiricism and measurable outcomes but the measures used may be indirect because of the need to test internalization of information. Information processing and constructivism are other major issues in cognitive theories of learning (Ormrod, 2016). Cognitive theories of learning show how different people learn in different ways and respond to information differently, whereas behavioral theories of learning ultimately insist that all people learn in basically the same way. Another concept in cognitive theories of learning is the notion of the mental schema: the totality of a person’s worldview that influences how a person makes connections between one idea or concept and another.
Research Support
An abundance of research supports both behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories. Behavioral theories of learning were supported by the founding fathers of behaviorism, such as Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner, whose experiments showed how changes to environmental stimuli result in behavior changes. Behavioral theories of learning show how human beings can train themselves—or be trained—to modify their behaviors such as extinguishing bad habits and undesirable behaviors or alternatively, developing desirable habits (Walker, 2017). Behavioral theories of learning have even been tested empirically in language learning settings, to improve instructional design for teachers of English as a foreign language (Savignon, 2017).
Theories of cognitive learning are also bolstered by research. Cognitive theories of learning show the importance of motivation and finding meaning in the learning process (Anderson, 2016). Cognitive theories of learning have also shown the importance of self-directed learning via the pathways of intrinsic motivation (Chen, 2013). Research also shows that human beings do learn via processes like categorization and assimilation, leading to the construction of knowledge (Ashby & Valentin, 2017). One of the most promising areas of research testing cognitive theories of learning is with cognitive load theory, which addresses issues like working memory and long-term memory (Sweller & Paas, 2017).
Educational Implications
Theories of learning would be all but meaningless without being applied to the educational setting. Both behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories can be applied to instructional design, educational administration, and pedagogy. Behavioral learning theories can be used to inform best practices in classroom management, via the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Rote learning is another example of the application of behavioral theories, where a known stimulus induces a desired response. Any time teachers use systems of reward and punishment, they are basing their instructional strategies on behavioral learning theories. Behavioral learning theories can be used in accordance with social learning, with the environmental stimuli being social support and acceptance into a high status group as a positive reinforcement. Similarly, using ridicule or embarrassment as negative reinforcements would be used to initiate different behavioral responses. Modeling is another way that behavioral learning theories can be applied in the classroom environment. Teachers may want to embody the substantive content of their lessons, helping students to develop special skills via the process of observation.
Observation can also be used in instructional designs and strategies that are based on cognitive learning theories. However, the cognitive learning theories show how the student’s responses to the teacher’s behavior will depend on factors like race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Students also need intrinsic motivation to learn, from the perspective of cognitive learning theory. Being motivated by extrinsic reward, or the fear of punishment, is not sufficient for learning to take place. According to cognitive theories of learning, the teacher needs to demonstrate clearly how the instructional material is useful to that person, or will fulfill some deeper needs. The learner is the center of the process, influencing instructional design in a bilateral flow of communication. For this reason, cognitive learning theories can be applied to specific instructional strategies like collaborative or cooperative learning. The student also needs to be exposed to multiple sources of information, delivered in many different forms such as visual aids or physical movements. Information processing occurs in complex ways, reflecting the individual needs of the learner.
Biblical Worldview
The Bible supports both behavioral and cognitive theories of learning. However, unlike behavioral theories, the Bible does stress the singularity of human existence because no other creatures but human beings are created in God’s image: “So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them,” (Genesis 1:27). In fact, God created human beings in His likeness specifically to demonstrate how unique they are: “they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground,” (Genesis 1:26). Whereas cognitive theories of learning do support the unique nature of human cognitive processes, giving people the power to learn languages and engage in rational thought, behavioral theories assume that people are like dogs in that stimuli induces responses. While this may be true for some basic learning processes, the human mind is too complex to account for all types of learning. For this reason, the Bible supports the cognitive theories of learning more so than the behavioral theories of learning.
The Bible does occasionally mention the processes of behavioral learning that undoubtedly do impact the human experience, particularly in early childhood. For example, children do learn first by modeling their behavior after their parents. Positive and negative reinforcement are used to train children, and ensure that they do not deviate from righteous behaviors. “Train up a child in the way he should go; even when he is old he will not depart from it,” (Proverbs 22:6). The Biblical support for positive and negative reinforcement can also be applied to some types of social learning, in which people develop a conscience and a desire to conform to societal norms. For example, “Whoever heeds instruction is on the path to life, but he who rejects reproof leads others astray,” (Proverbs 10:17). Behavioral theories of learning do emphasize the importance of observance and modeling of behaviors, which the Bible supports through a continued emphasis on inculcating model acts and morality: “Children, obey your parents in everything, for this pleases the Lord,” (Colossians 3:20).
Generally, though, the Bible suggests that learning should lead to spiritual progress. Spiritual learning is a type of cognitive learning, in which the person’s mental attitude becomes aligned with that of God via faith and the indwelling of Christ: “Let the message of Christ dwell among you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom through psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit, singing to God with gratitude in your hearts,” (Colossians 3:16).
Overall Effectiveness
Both behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories can prove overall effective for promoting measurable learning outcomes. Which theoretical orientation to take when designing lessons or utilizing instructional strategies depends largely on the context. Some learning activities are best designed using behavioral learning theories. As the Bible does indicate, behavioral learning theories can be helpful for teaching young children. Children do learn based on positive and negative reinforcement, and model their behavior after parents and other role models.
Behavioral learning theories can also be integrated with cognitive learning theories, as with cognitive-behavioral therapy (Ormrod, 2016). Cognitive-behavioral therapy combines the tenets of both learning theories, to use mental processes including self-awareness to induce desired changes in behavior or cognition. Behaviorism is also efficacious when used in situations such as the elimination of addictive and compulsive behaviors or when dealing with patterned responses such as phobias. For example, a person that wishes to extinguish a phobia might be able to use behavioral learning theories to re-train the mind to associate the feared object with positive emotions. These types of interventions may also be useful for learning new responses to environmental triggers, such as overcoming a fear of public speaking.
However, cognitive theories of learning can be far more useful in complex learning environments. Cognitive theories of learning show how people learn processes, and not just memorizing facts and figures. Using cognitive theories of learning, it becomes possible to see how people shape new attitudes, beliefs, and worldviews, or share what they know with other people. Cognitive theories of learning show how emotions factor into the efficacy of instructional strategies and impact the retention of information, too. Also, cognitive theories of learning are more useful from a research perspective versus behavioral theories of learning, which yield little in the way of radical new paradigms in the social sciences. Cognitive theories of learning help scientists understand the inner workings of the human mind better than behavioral theories, which discount the importance of cognition and subconscious processes (Anderson, 2016). Using cognitive theories of learning, it is possible to gain understanding of the subconscious thought processes implied in creativity and analysis (Sweller & Paas, 2017). Cognitive theories of learning are also unparalleled in their ability to lend insight into how human beings acquire language. However, it is also important to remember the relevance of behaviorism in the learning experience.

References
Anderson, T. (2016). Theories for learning with emerging technologies. In Veletsianos, G. (Ed.). Emergence and Innovation in Digital Learning. Athabasca University Press.
Ashby, F. G., & Valentin, V. V. (2017). Multiple Systems of Perceptual Category Learning. Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science, 157–188. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-101107-2.00007-5
Bible: NIV
Ormrod, J.E. (2016). Human Learning, 7th Edition. Pearson.
Reimann, A. (2018). Behaviorist Learning Theory. The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 1–6. doi:10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0155
Richard, J.A. (2016). Understanding theories of learning. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education 1(2): ISSN (Online): 2454 – 6119.
Savignon, S. J. (2017). Communicative Competence. The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 1–7. doi:10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0047
Sweller, J., & Paas, F. (2017). Should self-regulated learning be integrated with cognitive load theory? A commentary. Learning and Instruction, 51, 85–89. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.05.005
Walker, S. (2017). Learning theory and behavior modification. London: Routledge.