Abstract
Theories of learning are critical for informing pedagogical practice and promoting a deeper understanding of human behavior and mental processes. Behaviorism offers corresponding theories of learning that focus mainly on observable and measurable outcomes in performance. Cognitive theories of learning emphasize numerous complex thought processes such as assimilation and accommodation of new material, and also takes into account emotional aspects such as motivation. Behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories seem diametrically opposed but can be easily integrated via a Biblical worldview. Implications for future research include the thoughtful integration of both behavioral and cognitive learning theories into a Biblical worldview to better inform instructional strategies and promote mental health.

Introduction

How people learn has been one of the most pressing issues in the field of psychology. Since its inception, behaviorism has attempted to answer questions related to the nature and function of human learning via experimental research and empiricism, while avoiding the more subjective and nuanced nature of how learning occurs. Cognitive psychology has not necessarily eschewed the positivist approach used in behaviorism, and does rely on empiricism to ground theory. However, cognitive theories of learning showcase how the mind stores and access information and also how the creative thinking helps the individual formulate new thoughts, with emphasis not just on behavioral outcomes but also on outcomes such as material mastery and the acquisition of new knowledge.

Historical Development

Behavioral Theories of Learning

One of the root fields of psychology, behaviorism emerged around the early twentieth century to provide the first conscientious body of knowledge on human behavior based on empirical research design methods. Behaviorism has had a strong impact on the field of psychology, particularly in the realm of learning theory. Behavioral learning theories focus on the organism’s reactions to stimuli in the environment, which cause conditioned responses. Over time, the individual can change his or her behavior via classical or operant conditioning. Key theorists like Watson and Pavlov laid the foundations for early behavioral theories of learning, based on the fundamental concepts of stimuli and responses (Ormrod, 2016). Other central issues in behavioral theories of learning include behavioral modeling, in which the person learns by observing and imitating others (Reimann, 2018).

Cognitive Theories of Learning

Cognitive theories of learning postdated behavioral theories, evolving in the middle of the twentieth century. Researchers turned away from the positivist approaches behaviorists insisted upon and welcomed inquiry into mental processes and the nature of consciousness. Armed with new methodologies that added substance and validity to theoretical claims, cognitive psychologists applied empirical methods to the mental processes associated with learning (Ormrod, 2016). The early theories of learning within the realm of cognitive psychology focused on language skills acquisition, yielding the field of psycholinguistics (Ormrod, 2016). Subsequent theorists fused social psychology with cognitive psychology to show how people construct their self-concept and identity, forming worldviews and belief systems. Cognitive theories of learning showcase features of mental processing as diverse as memory processing and attention. Social learning theory is also linked to cognitive theories of learning. Historically, cognitive theories of learning have also informed research into artificial intelligence and related fields.

Key Concepts

Key concepts in behavioral theories of learning include the following. First, behavioral theories of learning imply “equipotentiality,” which is the assumption that all sentient beings learn in the same way, via conditioning and responses to external stimuli (Ormrod, 2016, p. 52). Pavlov’s classic experiments with dogs salivating at the sound of a bell ringing, even in the absence of food, applied just as well to humans who can be conditioned to respond to a stimulus similar to a bell—even a smell--with a specific behavioral response. All human beings can be taught using behavioral strategies: universality is a key concept in the cluster of behavioral theories of learning.

Behavioral theories of learning also discount subjectivity in human learning, instead claiming that learning occurs in predictable and objective ways instead. In fact, behavioral theories of learning usually have built into them the assumption that intervening variables can be isolated and accounted for in clinical research. Intervening variables might include socioeconomic factors, identity, personality, and emotions. Behavioral theories of learning seek direct causal relationships between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses, with learning outcomes that are strictly measurable as opposed to conceptual or procedural. While not all behavioral learning theories assume such a “black box” perspective on human learning, by definition all ultimately seek changes in behavioral outcomes rather than on mental or emotional states (Ormrod, 2016, p. 53).

According to most behavioral theories of learning, learning in general can be facilitated by reward systems, such as by offering a gift, or via punishment: the essence of operant conditioning. These reward systems are known as positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is an actual reward given upon the successful completion of a task, whereas negative reinforcement refers to a punishment—or the removal of a positive stimulus. Behavioral theories can be especially useful for simple, straightforward learning activities. Another main concept in behavioral theories of learning is that human beings learn based on extrinsic motivations such as being driven to work for money or study for good grades, rather than intrinsic motivation such as a desire for fulfillment or self-actualization. The...…indwelling of Christ: “Let the message of Christ dwell among you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom through psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit, singing to God with gratitude in your hearts,” (Colossians 3:16).

Overall Effectiveness

Both behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories can prove overall effective for promoting measurable learning outcomes. Which theoretical orientation to take when designing lessons or utilizing instructional strategies depends largely on the context. Some learning activities are best designed using behavioral learning theories. As the Bible does indicate, behavioral learning theories can be helpful for teaching young children. Children do learn based on positive and negative reinforcement, and model their behavior after parents and other role models.

Behavioral learning theories can also be integrated with cognitive learning theories, as with cognitive-behavioral therapy (Ormrod, 2016). Cognitive-behavioral therapy combines the tenets of both learning theories, to use mental processes including self-awareness to induce desired changes in behavior or cognition. Behaviorism is also efficacious when used in situations such as the elimination of addictive and compulsive behaviors or when dealing with patterned responses such as phobias. For example, a person that wishes to extinguish a phobia might be able to use behavioral learning theories to re-train the mind to associate the feared object with positive emotions. These types of interventions may also be useful for learning new responses to environmental triggers, such as overcoming a fear of public speaking.

However, cognitive theories of learning can be far more useful in complex learning environments. Cognitive theories of learning show how people learn processes, and not just memorizing facts and figures. Using cognitive theories of learning, it becomes possible to see how people shape new attitudes, beliefs, and worldviews, or share what they know with other people. Cognitive theories of learning show how emotions factor into the efficacy of instructional strategies and impact the retention of information, too. Also, cognitive theories of learning are more useful from a research perspective versus behavioral theories of learning, which yield little in the way of radical new paradigms in the social sciences. Cognitive theories of learning help scientists understand the inner workings of the human mind better than behavioral theories, which discount the importance of cognition and subconscious processes (Anderson, 2016). Using cognitive theories of learning, it is possible to gain understanding of the subconscious thought processes implied in creativity and analysis (Sweller & Paas, 2017). Cognitive theories of learning are also unparalleled in their ability to lend insight into how human beings acquire language. However, it is also important to remember the relevance of behaviorism in the learning experience.