Much work remains to enable a seamless
Integration, for example that can extend IP to support mobile network devices. (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
4G is stated to begin with the assumption "that future networks will be entirely packet-switched, using protocols evolved from those in use in today's Internet." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003) It is reported that a 4G wireless network that is all IP-based "has intrinsic advantages over its predecessors." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
IP is stated to be both compatible with and independent of "the actual radio access technology" meaning that 'the core 4G network can be designed and evolves independently from access networks. Using IP-based core network also means the immediate tapping of the rich protocol suites and services already available, for example, voice and data convergence, can be supported by using readily available VoIP set of protocols such as MEGACOP, MGCP, SIP, H.323, SCTP. Finally the converged all-IP wireless core networks will be packet based and support packetized voice and multimedia on top of data. This evolution is expected to greatly simplify the network and to reduce costs for maintaining separate networks, for different traffic types." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
It is reported that 4G IP-based systems will be cheaper and more efficient than 3G. The basis for this is first that equipment costs are forecasted to be "four to ten times lower than equivalent circuit-switched equipment for 2G and 3G wireless infrastructures." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003) In addition, an open converged IP wireless environment brings about a reduction in costs for network build-out and maintenance and that will not be a requirement for purchasing extra spectrum since 2G/3G spectrum can be reused in 4G and the majority of the spectrum required by WLAN and WPAN is public and therefore does not make a requirement of a license.
It is reported that MANETS have been used mainly for "tactical network related applications to improve battlefield communications survivability" as the dynamic nature of military operations means that military cannot rely on access to fixed pre-placed communication infrastructure in battlefield." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
Mobile ad hoc networks are stated to create a "suitable framework to address the issues in radio signal limitations and specifically interference through provision of a multi-hop wireless network without pre-placed infrastructure and connectivity beyond LOS." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
Ad hoc wireless networks are stated to inherit the traditional problems of wireless communications and wireless networking:
(1) The wireless medium has neither absolute nor readily observable boundaries outside of which stations are known to be unable to receive network frames;
(2) The channel is unprotected from outside signals;
(3) The wireless medium is significantly less reliable than wired media;
(4) The channel has time-varying and asymmetric propagation properties; and (5) hidden-terminal and exposed-terminal phenomena may occur. (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
C. MANET Applications
Chlamtac, Conti and Liu (2003) report the MANET applications listed in Figure 2.
Figure 2
MANET Applications
Source: Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu (2003)
D. MANET Security Issues
It is reported that an issue that presents great challenges is securing the wireless ad hoc networks and that toward this end understanding the possible types of attacks that may occur is the first step towards development of good solutions for security. Ad hoc networks are stated to "have to cope with the same kinds of vulnerabilities as their wired counterparts as well as with new vulnerabilities specific to the ad hoc context." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
Traditional vulnerabilities are further emphasized in the ad hoc environment. It is reported that passive attack involves the attacker listening to the network rather than sending information and this type of passive attack does not actually interrupt the operation of a protocol but instead attempts to mine information that would be valuable. However, the active attack is different in that information is inserted into the network.
Wireless mobile ad hoc networking in its very nature results in new security challenges in the design of MANET networks. These types of networks are reported to be "generally more vulnerable to information and physical security threats." (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003) Vulnerability includes those to:
(1) Channels and modes; and (2) Absence of infrastructure and dynamically changing topology, all serve to make the network security of the MANET one that is difficult in nature. (Chlamtac, Conti, and Liu, 2003)
Factors affecting the security of MANETS include:
(1) Broadcast wireless channels allow message eavesdropping and injection;
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