Key theories of motivation in drug use and addiction

¶ … Motivation When it Comes to Drug Use and Addiction

Theories of motivation, drug use and addiction

Key theories of motivation in relation to drug use and addiction

Addictive behavior is a process that it initiated by certain motivational factors and causative features. The use of psychological theories to describe and analyze these motivational patterns of behavior is essential in order to understand and create preventative strategies to combat addiction. Various theories of motivation are used to explain the addictive syndrome. These include cognitive and behavioral theories as well as socio-psychological and other theoretical stances. The pleasure principle and motivation towards fulfillment and self-efficacy and the search for excitement are also dealt with in relation to disinhibition theories of motivation. These are discussed to provide a clear and integrated overview of the central motivational theories that lead to and maintain addictive behavior.

Introduction

Motivation is one of the complex aspects of our psychological makeup. The reason why we do certain things and the causative factors that influence human behavior and actions are often seemingly mysterious and even irrational. Various theories of motivation can be applied to views of addictive behavior, and especially to harmful and potentially deadly addictions such as some forms of drug abuse.

Drug addiction and abuse has a long and complex history in human society with regard to individual and social developments and actions. Drugs and their effects on the mind and consciousness states of experience can be traced back to the origins of human history. For example, Changeux (1998) states that;

The pollen of eight medicinal plants was discovered deposited intentionally in a 60,000-year-old tomb in Iraq. The shelves of the Assurbanipal library held tablets in cuneiform writing that listed some 250 plants, 120 mineral substances, and 180 animal substances. Opium poppies and cannabis were mentioned together with Mandragora, Ricinus, Elleborus, incense gum, and myrrh. (Changeux, 1998)

In the Western world, the recreational use of drugs first became popular in the sixteenth century, when European explorers brought back many exotic drugs and plants from their travels. (Changeux, 1998) Early theorists and writers on the subject of drugs and drug usage in society linked this usage and abuse to various social factors. Emile Zola, for example, "....linked the compulsive use of alcohol with poverty and social distress" (Changeux, 1998).

With the increasing popularity of drug usage in the West, laws were implemented to reduce the perceived negative effects of drug abuse. For examples, opium was banned during the period of the First World War. (Changeux, 1998) However,

Despite strongly repressive laws throughout the world...about four hundred thousand individuals are currently incarcerated in the United States for violation of drug laws... drug abuse remains an alarming health hazard throughout the world. Illicit drugs account for 35% of new cases of AIDS in the United States. Heroin-related deaths rose in U.S. metropolitan areas from thirteen hundred in 1985 to thirty-five hundred in 1994. (Changeux, 1998)

The term "addiction is a contentious term and is often only seen to refer to "... extreme or psychopathological state where control over drug use is lost" (Changeux, 1998). Addiction is more commonly used as a term to describe a state of dependence on an external substance or pattern of behavior. In this sense, addiction can have physical and psychological or behavioral dimensions, or a combination of these aspects.

Theories of addiction and the motivational and causative facets that underlie these often-deadly addictions are important as they provide the knowledge and foundations for rehabilitation and preventative measure that can reduce the incidence and severity of additive behavior and drug abuse.

The following discussion will therefore focus on some of the primary and most commonly researched motivational theories of addiction.

2. Overview of the motivational theories and addiction

Drug addiction and substance abuse are usually defined as follows:

the"...compulsive use of a substance despite negative consequences which can be severe.... drug abuse is simply excessive use of a drug or use of a drug for purposes for which it was not medically intended." (Drug Abuse and Dependence) the contemporary abuse of these substances is exacerbated by factors such as new and easier modes of communication and the way in which drugs are often portrayed in the media and in entertainment..

Not all drugs are equally addictive. A drug such as heroin or cocaine is more addictive and requires shorter periods of use than codeine or alcohol to become addictive. There are two central forms of addiction; namely physical and psychological dependence. However, these two aspects of addiction are not mutually exclusive and both aspects can play a part in the process of addiction.

In more theoretical terms, drug addiction refers to a situation where, "...drug procurement and administration appear to govern the organism's behavior, and where the drug seems to dominate the organism's motivational hierarchy" (Bozarth, 1990). Jaffe (1975) goes further and describes addiction as, "....a behavioral pattern of compulsive drug use, characterized by overwhelming involvement with the use of a drug, the securing of its supply, and a high tendency to relapse after withdrawal... (p. 285)."

There is a general consensus that the motivation for addictive behavior can be more appropriately defined in psychological and behavioral terms, rather than physical terms.

The nature of drug addiction places its study firmly in the realm of motivational psychology. Many of the experimental methods that have been developed to study conventional rewards (e.g., food, water, sex) can be applied to the study of addiction, and the conceptual advances made in motivational theory can be used to guide the study of addictive behavior. (Bozarth, 1990)

In other words, the psychological theories of drug addiction are seen by many theorists to be more significant and instructive than explanations that rely solely on chemical or neurological causative facets - although these too play an important role in the addictive syndrome. Therefore, it follows that an understanding of psychological motivation that underlies the addictive behavior is essential in terms of constructing appropriate remedies and preventative strategies.

Studies also stress the importance of motivational strength in the understanding of addicts and addiction. This refers to the fact that the very nature of addiction suggests that the motivational nexus that underlies these forms of behavior most be extremely strong; especially when maintaining this behavior often runs counter to social approval and to the common - sense health concern of the individual concerned.

There are numerous theories that refer to the reasons for the psychological motive that lies behind addictions and drug abuse. These range from neurobiological and neuropsychological to social, cognitive and developmental theories of motivation.

3. Sensation and experience seeking

Possibly one of the most extensively researched theories about motivation and addiction is the view that it is motivated by hedonism and pleasure seeking.

Robert E. Franken in his book Human Motivation (2001), states that. "Sensation seekers satisfy their needs in many ways..." (Franken, 2001, p. 345). He continues and adds that these sensation seekers are often motivated to experiment with drugs and banned substances as a source of new experiences.

This view of sensation and experience seeking as a cardinal motivating factor can be traced back to the Greek philosopher, Epicurus, who was of the opinion that, "....human beings are pulled forward toward and by nature seek pleasure, whereas they flee from and reject pain" (Changeux, 1998). This rather naive and simplistic thesis is however the basis for many contemporary psychological theories of motivation and addiction. It is based on the view that there are 'pleasure centers' in the brain and that the motivation for our actions is based on the search for the stimulation of these pleasure centers.

The urge to explore news sensations and experiences, coupled with the pleasure motive in drug taking is a fundamental and important starting point in the understanding of the motivational matrix behind drug addiction and drug abuse, as well as other addictions. This is also relates to the theory of the human "curiosity drive," as well as the search for novelty (Franken, 2002, p. 335) This in turn is related to another related theoretical perspective, namely self-determination theory.

Zuckermans's view of self-determination theory can be linked to the various developmental theories of motivation. Self - determination is based on the view that human beings have three innate needs that underlie motivational impulses. These are competence, relatedness and autonomy. (Franken, 2001, p. 341) Importantly, two of these needs, namely competence and autonomy, "...form the basis for understanding intrinsic motivation" (Franken, 2001, p. 341). Essentially, the theory underlying self -determination is that "... humans are innately inclined to respond to novelty and challenge..." (Franken, 2001, p. 341) Therefore, people tend to respond to challenges and are motivated to achieve a sense of competency and autonomy. The fundaments of this motivational drive also play a role in terms of the causes of drug usage and addiction.

Related to the above is the theory of disinhibition. This theory is more inclined towards the socio-psychological aspect of motivation and addiction but also forms an important part of the developmental theories of addiction. It is also possibly one of the most significant motivational factors among young people. Zuckerman refer to disinhibition as follows. "These who choose to follow a conventional lifestyle might periodically escape by engaging in social drinking..." (Franken, 2001, p. 343). This is an important factor as the desire or need for disinhibition may lead to an addictive patterns of behavior, where the drugs or alcohol supply the required escape from routine and inhibitory factors.

Disinhibition is also strongly related to the conventions of society where the individual may feel hemmed in and confined by the routine and patterns of ordinary life. This can lead to addictive behavior as the use of drugs or substances are motivated by the desire to free one's self and sense of identity and fulfill experiential needs.

The central concept that links al of these motivational theories is that they all can be seen to contribute to the understanding of the addictive process. This process occurs in a common sequence of event that involves loss of control or "self -administration."

The recreational and pleasurable use of drugs, associated at least in some cases with euphoria and/or flashing hallucinations.... However, progressively the user loses control over drug intake; he becomes a drug abuser and, finally, drug-dependent. He then needs the drug to function within normal limits. He seeks higher doses of the drug to achieve the same effect - that is, a degree of tolerance develops. (Changeux, 1998)

3.1. Opponent processes

Therefore, the most obvious motivational factor for the taking of drugs leading to addiction is the search for pleasure. However, as has been seen mentioned, there are many other psychological aspects involved in this process - including the search for experiential meaning and self-expression. Repeated drug usage often leads to tolerance and dependence. Consequently, "Compulsive drug taking is maintained, by this view, to avoid unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. This two-sided hedonic hypothesis has gone by many different names: pleasure-pain, positive-negative reinforcement, opponent processes, hedonic homeostasis, hedonic dysregulation," (Robinson & Berridge, 2003, p. 25) in other words, according to this theory there is a double process that leads to addiction. The user first takes the drugs, motivated by the search for pleasure or the release from social inhibition, to escape from deadening conventions or routines, or for other psychological reasons. This in turn leads to the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms - which then results in more drugs to alleviate these withdrawal symptoms. This is the classic motivational cycle that leads ultimately to complete addiction.

Conditioning theories of motivation and addiction also state that the excessive use of a substance leading to addiction develops according to the need for rewarding behavior. The significance of conditioning theory is described as follows.

In classical conditioning, previously neutral stimuli become associated with reactions brought on in their presence by a primary reinforcer. Thus an addict who relapses can be conceived to have had his craving for the addiction reinstated by exposure to the settings in which he previously used drugs.

(Peele S. And Alexander B.)

4. Developmental theories

Following for the above discussion, there are many theories that discuss the relation between motivation, addiction and the early years of growth and development. This view also deals with the factor of adolescent cognition during the formative years." During the adolescent years a noteworthy shift occurs in the individual's perception of the external world and the self" (Trad, 1994, p.459). This "shift' in effect means that the adolescent engages in alternative and different courses of action in response to the world in which he or she lives. Young people may be motivated to take drugs as a response to the difficulties of growing up as well as to the social, psychological and physical changes that this period of development often brings. "...the teenager is often in the position of experimenting with new concepts, ideas, and actions - a position that may be fraught with risk, especially with regard to the abuse of drugs" (Trad, 1994, p. 459). Therefore, many researchers note that during this period various psychopathologic patterns emerge in some teenagers. (Trad, 1994, p.459)

There are a multitude of variables and motivational aspects that could be considered in this context. For example, in terms of the theory of disinhibition discussed above, the young person may be motivated by the desire to escape what he or she perceives as the unacceptable and confining norms of the society. Factor such as parental relationships, peer pressure, and other aspects add to the motivational complex that could lead to addiction.