Nigeria, the Most Populous Country

Nigeria, the most populous country on continent is situated in the western part of Africa. Today it's considered to be one of the most prosperous and dynamically developing African countries due to rich oil resources and diamond mines. Nigeria has a very extensive history as it was populated by a number of diverse African cultures since ancient times. According to archeological evidence, the first civilizations on the territory of Nigeria appeared more than 110 centuries ago. Nigeria is considered to be the homeland of Bantu tribes, which populated most part of central and southern Africa in the period of 2000 BC-1000 AD. The history of Nigeria attracts archeologists and historians by its diversity and uniqueness, setting perfect background for the study of African peoples culture, origins of African civilization and its role in process of historical interaction and globalization. In recent years big interest to the culture and history of this country was stimulated by national revival based on oil exports, which created financial background for preserving of national identity and development of national culture.

History

It's generally agreed that Nigeria has a very unique and original culture from historical point-of-view:

Brass items in Bida, brass and copper heads in Ile-Ife and Benin, bronze products in Igbo-Ukwu, terra cotta animals in Borno, terra cotta heads in Nok, and quartz, basalt, granite, and chalcedony tools dating to the Oldowan and Acheulian age scattered in different locations: all these are among the spectacular archaeological findings that have confirmed the evidence of indigenous societies in Nigeria during prehistoric times." (Falola, 17) Nok people, who inhabited Nigeria in the first centuries AD had original technique of making scultures. Country's favorable geographic position promoted economical growth in the 1000's as Nigeria kingdoms of Hausa and Kanem-Bornu served as a buffer zone in trade with North and South Africa states and tribes.

In the middle age period the territory of Modern Nigeria was already divided between different ethnic groups, which formed primitive states. By the 1000 AD there existed a number of prosperous kingdoms of the territory of the country such as Yoruba kingdom, Igbo, Edo kingdom of Benin and others. Today archeologists predict that there existed a number of other cultures in the Middle age epoch, which are still not discovered because of lack of historical and archeological evidence.

According to modern historical knowledge the Yoruba has been a dominant ethnic group west of River Niger. The Yoruba had a very complicated social structure for Middle age African cultures, as by the beginning of 11th century they settled not only in patrilineal rural communities but also formed cities and cities-states, which were subordinated to dynasties of chiefs. Yoruba were predominantly agricultural society with developed arts and crafts especially in urbanized territories. Yoruba artists achieved high level in terracotta and ivory sculpture.

In the 15th century cities of Oyo and Benin became political and economical centers of Yoruba, playing a very important role in intercontinental African trade. Benin turned into a big city by the end of the 15th century with nearly 100-000 inhabitants. By the end of the 15th century Benin established trade with Portugal merchants and took an important part in developing slave trade.

Development northern kingdoms of savanna part of Nigeria was also stimulated by commercial ties of Central and Western Africa with Sahara and Mediterranean region, linking western Sudan with upper Nile and North African coast. These trade routes played a key role in the penetration of Islam religion to West Africa already in the 9th century AD. By the end of 15th century most of trans-Saharan small states and kingdoms of Sudan were experiencing decline and lost their leading role in African trade. Songhi Empire became the consolidating power, which united Sudan and Nigerian northern territories. Songhi gained considerable political influence in Nigerian savanna and submitted a number of small Nigerian states; also they made Islam an official religion, which directed further development of Nigeria up until colonization by Europeans.

By the end of the 13th century another developed culture appeared on the map of Nigeria. Starting from 11th century Kanem's possessions expended to the territory of lake Chad basin. In order to promote centralization of power and strengthen political influence, kings of Kanem-Borno adopted Islam in the 11th century, but still the elements of original social culture were preserved, as for example women continued to take important role in inner state politics (which is unacceptable for Muslims).

Kanem-Borno Empire suffered civil conflicts and shift to disintegration starting from the 14th century all the way till 17th century. Nevertheless Borno distinguished by its Muslim culture and gained reputation of a scholar center. Empire's prosperity was mainly provided by salt trade and livestock as well as trans-Sudanic slave trade.

Historians mark that the arrival of Islam played a very important role in cultural development of Medieval Nigeria, as it united Northern and Western Africa cultures with rich Medieval Muslim civilization of Middle East Arabian world. Islam influenced architecture, art and folklore of Nigerians, it contributed to the development of centralized balanced politics and civil thought. Nevertheless, folk religious beliefs and traditions continued their coexistence with canons of Islam. Acceptance of Islam was also a very important strategic decision of Nigerian rulers, as it protected their peoples from slavery in case of defeat from the side of Muslim enemies. (It's a well-known fact that Muslims are prohibited to convert in slavery their coreligionists).

Family relations and social structure

Like in majority of African countries, in Nigeria traditional system had been preserved after democratic social reforms and continues to play a dominant role in life of people, especially in rural regions, where local officials have only juridical power but cannot influence public life of local population. Tribal and other rudimental origins of social relations contributed to the development of dynamically changing social morals and ethics. European influence contributed to social transformation but ethnic origins of Nigerians form the basis for social relations and coexistence of different social and religious groups in the country. Majority of Nigerian families follow patriarchal tradition; rights of inheritance belong predominantly to family males.

Extended families are very common among Nigerians especially in rural areas. Low level of urbanization, absence of labor mechanization and poverty of a big number of Nigerians made them to live in extended families, when several generations: grandparents, parents and children as well as their close relatives live under one roof. Many Nigerians note that:

The action of a man cannot be hidden. If you are living in the neighborhood and you are bad, before you speak your neighbors will know what kind of man or woman you are... If you go to them for help, they will pity you and help you. They may help you settle a quarrel." (Gugler and Flanagan 1978, 76-78)

Patriarchal tradition and strict subordination in family relations had preserved among Nigerians since ancient times and influences everyday ethics. Only elder family members have the right to use first name- calling elder relatives by their first name is considered to be a serious insult. Another characteristic feature of Nigerian family relations is the system of mutual care and bail, which is typical for conservative societies with family survivals. Seniority system of Nigeria society is continuation of traditional indigenous beliefs, which are preserved among representatives of nearly all religious confessions. Seniority system is inherent set of obligations in complex social hierarchy of Nigeria:

Traditionally, any senior had a right to unquestioned service, deference, and submissiveness from any junior (Lloyd 1974, 35-36). Other authors also add: "Distinctions defining seniority were, of necessity, elaborate and were expressed in the myriad terms by which individuals greeted and addressed each other"(Fadipe 1970). Such authors as Aronson (1980, 94) state that survivals of seniority are widely spread in business relationships and are widely practiced in modern urban areas., causing uncomfortable conflicts especially in relations of opposite genders. As a result such domination of traditional beliefs over business ethics often creates unfavorable conditions for personal promotion based on usual attributes of the modern world such as financial success and merit.

Typical for African cultures, child marriage practices are not very spread in today's Nigeria and mostly exist in remote rural regions. Nevertheless, early marriage age for girls is still widely encouraged. Marriage ceremonies are very important event for Nigerian families and they often involve all family members of newly married. General statistics shows that:

Of sample mothers, 75 per cent claimed to be married by customary law; 6 per cent had been married under the Marriage Act; 13 per cent were cohabiting, 2 per cent each were single and divorced, and 1 per cent were widowed. One pattern is for men with monogamous homes to have "outside wives" (Aronson 1980, 113-114)

Polygamy, which was widely spread in Nigeria, starts to disappear nowadays due to processes of westernization even among Nigerian Muslims. While in some rural areas marriages across different ethnic groups are not accepted and forbidden, in urban areas they turn to common practice. Divorces are often practiced as well but predominantly in urban areas.

Traditional social hierarchy, which was practiced in pre-colonial times, survived in the form of ethical norms. Nigerians are very respectful to the holders of traditional titles such as chief, emir, Oba or Eze; as in ancient times chiefs' role was semi-divine as they were considered to be appointed by supreme powers. Holders of these titles take high positions in modern community hierarchy, especially in rural areas. Inner tribe relations based on traditional hierarchy play a very important role in country's government activities and politics in general. It's very important to note that the title of chief for Nigerians is often of a higher merit than doctoral degree.

Because Nigeria is a patriarchal society, most of household work is done by women, which are helped either by relatives or by servants, depending upon their social status. Nigerian husbands in majority do not have household chores, which is influenced both by African and Muslim traditions. Life style of poor and rich in Nigeria are greatly different, besides difference exists in life of urban and rural households. Even in multimillion cities such as Lagos majority of inhabitants do not have basic facilities such as running water, drain system or even electricity.

Common Beliefs and Values

Nearly al rudimentary religious beliefs of Nigerian ethnic groups are based on roots in the area of settling. These primary beliefs also connected family spirits and ghosts with supreme powers of the homeland. It was common for all ancient tribes of Nigeria to be connected to a certain place or settlement in the terms of genealogical relationship. These beliefs regulated every side of social and economical activity of a settlement, all kinds of social relations had to be approved and legalized only in the accordance to these mythological beliefs.

The mythology of Nigerians was predominantly built on the cult of ancestors, which later turned into seniority subordination. Such system of beliefs postulated mutual dependence and bail between family members and representatives of one family, community or tribe. On the secondary level in the religious system of ancient Nigerians were supernatural powers and spirits (old trees, animals, snakes, rivers, thunder, etc. were personalized and contributed to the system of mythological beliefs).

Nearly all of extraordinary events in tribal or community's life were interpreted from mythological point-of-view: catastrophes, hunting failures, bad weather conditions, epidemic or even individual illnesses. A special place in interaction with supreme powers was devoted to witchcraft and shamanism; no serious event in community's life was deprived of such practices. As all events were only explained in the terms of religious beliefs, resultant was a serious impact on system of traditional values and morality.

Traditional morality of Nigerians is strictly supervised. It turned into popular practice for adult men to organize secret societies to imitate activity of spirits and supervise social order in communities. By the end of 1990's these secret organizations were widely used for enforcement of indigenous traditions countrywide. The future members of such organizations had to receive certain training in order to be accepted in its membership in future, but changing social climate of developing society of Nigeria and proximity of widely afforded facilities of Western civilization led to new tendencies and a number of these secret sects died out. But nevertheless today, ritual dances on the hand with other traditional religious ceremonies are widely spread in rural communities to keep "unity" with "holly spirits and ghosts." The influence of shamans and religious chiefs even in urban areas is preserved as they take a direct participation in solving and interpreting different disputes, which refer to norms of morality, ethics and social behavior.

Today a number of witchcraft elements survived in the form of folk medicine and religious prejudices. Folk medicine of Nigerians is full of recipes from influence of "bad people," it has recommendations and rituals to avoid misfortunes, stresses and illnesses.

Like in all ancient cultures politics in life of Nigerian ethnicities correlated with religious beliefs, as power and social hierarchy were considered to be "holly." In their beliefs king (or chief) and spirits of his ancestors were responsible for prosperity and welfare of the whole state (or community):

In Oyo, for example, there were a number of national cults, each with its own priests who performed rituals under the authority of the king (alafin) in the public interest. Shango, god of thunder, symbolized the power of the king and of central government; Ogboni represented the fertility of the land and the monarch's role in ensuring the well-being of the kingdom." (from (http://www.palo.org/yoruba/religion.html)

Religion and spirituality

Nigeria is known for its ethnic and religious diversity as absolutely all religions according to the statistics of 1990 were practiced nearly in all big cities of the country. Islam dominates in northern and western regions, Christianity with its different confessions is spread among Yoruba and Igbo. According to the statistics of 1963, 47% of Nigerians were Muslim, 35% Christian and approximately 18% represented native traditional congregations. Modern religious tendencies show that the number of Christians is growing with a constant rate, decline had been observed among followers of Nigerian traditional religions and slow increase was marked among Muslims. Such tendencies witness the dynamical rate of urbanization, of cross ethnic marriages and shift towards modernization.

Christian missions in the southern part of the country play an important role in promotion of religious knowledge and in education. After Nigeria gained independence in 1960's there was observed a considerable growth of Aladura Church, which is an Africanized Christian sect and growth of different evangelical churches, especially in the regions populated by Yoruba. Aladura is often called "praying" church as its members reject traditional and folk medicine and base curing only on praying and other religious practices.

Islam is also getting spread now in non-northern regions, as it became one of the important attributes for acceptance to the circles of local political and business elite.

Even those who confess Islam or Christianity are much influenced by folk traditional religious beliefs, which represent a complex mythical system. Traditional religious beliefs of Nigerians are represented by polytheism, with supreme being who rules the Universe and whom different spirits assists, ghosts of ancestors and deities. These creatures execute the role of mediators between supreme being and living creatures including man. All religious offerings are made through mediators (mainly spirits) and are often included in practices of folk medicine and folk magic.