The evolution of Roman military organization and tactical innovation

Presence of Non-Romans

Throughout the history of Rome, there were a series of transformations that were taking place. One area where this was most evident is inside the Roman army. As these changes, were designed to deal with current and future challenges. Yet, many of these adjustments were based upon: addressing underlying needs and reflecting the social changes that were occurring in society. Over the course of time, these shifts would transform the identity of Rome itself. To fully understand what is taking place requires looking at: how these adjustments were occurring and the lasting effect they had on its characteristics / loyalty. Together, these different elements will highlight how these changes transformed the way Rome looked at itself. This is the point that these transformations will illustrate how the Roman army and society were weakened by these differences.

History of the Roman Army

The Roman army has undergone a number of transformations during the course of the republic and empire. The most notable include: the phalanx, the development / evolution of legions and the formation of a larger army. These different periods are illustrating where the Roman army's strength came from and what factors were contributing to their success.

The Phalanx: The early Roman army utilized the phalanx as the primary weapon of choice. However, depending upon the individual's class, their underlying amounts of protection varied. What happened is there were a total of five categories. In general, the wealthy were the most heavily armed and they had greater amounts of armor. The lowest class had no protection and carried a single phalanx as their primary weapon. This system had limited success for the republic. The problem was that their units could easily be outmaneuvered by: Germanic tribes (who were utilizing unconventional tactics). After the Gauls sacked parts of early Rome, is when there was a transformation in these tactics.

The Development of Legions: In response to these challenges, was the establishment of legions. These were large units that were designed to directly engage the enemy and limit their ability to counter attack. The way that this was achieved is through creating three different rows and columns (i.e. The hastati in the front, the principes forming the middle, and the triarii in rear). The hastati was a group of young soldiers that carried a sword, javelin and fully body shield. This was created to prevent the enemy from gaining ground and to limit any kind of collateral damage from a frontal attack. The principies were in the middle of the formation and were considered to be the most experienced. This meant that they received the best weapons and protection. The triarii's were at the back of the formation and they were armed in similar fashion to the hastati. Their basic objectives were to secure the rear of the formation against any kind of sneak attack.

As time went by, these innovations continued with the legions becoming more maneuverable and capable of adapting to a variety of situations. At the same time, a series of professional standards were implemented that helped to improve the quality of soldiers in the army. This was developed through: increasing proficiency / physical standards and establishing a set period of time for everyone to serve in the army (i.e. 20 years). Moreover, legions were equipped with long spears and the armament improved for the majority of units. There was also the development of the cavalry. Their job was to move independently and in coordination with regular army units. During the battle, they were often utilized to soften and overwhelm targets.

The formation of a larger army: As time went by, the Romans were facing considerable challenges. This is because they controlled vast amounts of territory and did not have enough personnel to prevent incursions by the Germanic tribes. The problem was that Rome had faced a series of civil wars and continuing cross border attacks (which became worse). To address these challenges, the traditional legion was abandoned in favor of more lightly armored cavalry and infantry units. During this time, professional standards were reduced and many of the Germanic tribes were hired by Rome as mercenaries. This created a series of shifting alliances and loyalties that reduce the strength and professionalism of the army. Once the mercenaries were no longer working with the Romans, is when they would take this knowledge with them and utilize it to attack these units.

In 378 AD, the Goths used what they learned to wipe out the entire Eastern Roman infantry and cavalry (at the Battle of Adrianople). In response to these issues, new reforms were implemented by hiring many of the Germanic tribes as mercenaries. This caused the balance of power in the Roman army to shift and standards of professionalism to change. Moreover, the preferred weapons of choice switched to the bow and arrow. As time went by many Roman units were organized similar to the Germanic tribes (with a chief serving as the commander). There were also German words and ideas that were incorporated into various Roman military strategies.

The Impact of Christianity on the Roman Army

Until the fourth century AD, Rome did not recognize Christianity and they often viewed it as a cult. This is because Christians refused to participate in Roman public holidays and practices that were paying tribute to the Emperor / gods (most notably: the burning of incense in front of their doors). At the same time, they were discouraged from joining or serving in the Roman army.

However, over the course of time there was a transformation in attitudes. In 311 AD, the Emperor Galerian passed a series of laws calling for the tolerance of Christians in society. This opened the door for these individuals to become a part of the army. In 313 AD, Galerian and the Western Emperor Constantine agreed that Christianity should be the official religion of the empire. The biggest factor supporting Constantine's decision was based upon: the belief that God had protected his army and helped him to win critical battles. As a result, he encouraged his men to openly practice Christianity as part of their religion. This allowed the church to influence the army and the practices they were utilizing.

Evidence of this can be seen with observations from Whitby (1998) who said, "Before Constantine, although there were Christians enrolled in the army, with a closeness and connection between military service and pagan worship. This is especially true with the imperial cult, which served to reinforce military loyalties. They made it difficult for committed Christians to serve or for soldiers to be admitted to Christian communities. Once Constantine made this the official religion of Rome, is when these practices were widely accepted by everyone. This is when there was a transformation in the customs and traditions that were utilized by Roman soldiers and officers." These ideas are showing Christianity transformed the mindset of the Roman military with everyone accepting these ideas. In the future, this changed the identity of the Roman army to reflect the transformations in society.

These different areas are showing how the transformations in the Roman army were a replication of the shifts in society. This was occurring through the acceptance of Christianity and the increased number of non-Romans into the military. At first, these changes were taking place very subtly. Yet, over the long periods of time, is when these shifts became more severe which resulted in the changing practices and tactics inside the Roman army.

How the Changes in Christianity Impacted the Army?

Like what was stated previously, Christianity has been a growing movement in Rome. What happened is many of the beliefs and ideas went directly against the pagan religions that were practiced by the state. This meant that Christians were often persecuted for their non-support of officially sanctioned customs and traditions. Moreover, the idea that Christ was above the power of Cesar made most officials uncomfortable with their presence. This led to a series of purges that were directed at their communities.

However, despite these challenges, Christians continued to influence Roman society. In the second and third centuries, they were able to use legal tactics to directly question the Emperor. This is where they could publically ask a question to the Emperor and they would have to respond (under the law). What the Christians wanted to know is how come they did not have the same kind of protections as other minorities (such as: the Jews)? As they did not have to participate in: public holidays and rituals. This angered many Christians, who felt that they were being directly targeted by the government. After trying to answer these questions, is when they began to have an influence on the Emperor.

At the same time, the peace and stability of the Roman Empire created the ideal conditions for Christianity to spread from one region to the next. This caused more people to abandon their traditional pagan beliefs and begin to practice Christian ideals. Over the course of time, these views would influence prominent Roman citizens. After Constantine became Emperor, is when the religion would be widely accepted.

These changes had an impact on Roman identity and loyalty by questioning if the current political, economic and military structure would continue. When this happened, many people began to believe that the prophases discussed in the book of Revelations were coming true (from: the bold incursions of the German tribes into key areas). Moreover, the inability to continue to promote stability meant that the army was becoming weak.

The spread of Christianity across national and ethnic boundaries was undermining the authority of the government. This was occurring with the Emperor being seen as lower than God (by serving as a messenger). Over the course of time, this changed the aura of the Emperor and society itself. It is at this point that national and ethnic identities would be utilized to protect each other against the weakening empire. This is when the feudal system began to dominate Roman life. Christianity played an important part, by highlighting how the predications in Revelations could be impacting events that were unfolding.

The reliance on the Germanic and Asia Minor-based military units only added to these worries. Once planners began to use them as part of their strategy, is when different feudal establishments were created to protect private interests. Christianity played a role in the process, by showing how the empire was becoming weak and major transformations were about to occur. This fear, created shifts in how people seen Rome's identity and their loyalty to the empire. These different factors contributed to the deteriorating security situation during the fourth century.

The Effect of Military Transformations on the Society and Roman Identity / Loyalty

The military transformations were a direct reflection of Roman society. What had happened is many of the different legions were once considered to be capable of effectively dealing with the threat from Germanic tribes. This was accomplished through using reserve troops that were supported by large outposts. The basic idea was to effectively cut off the retreat of horse-based cavalry that were involved in raiding parties on border areas.

The introduction of the Roman cavalry was an effective strategy in supporting and directly engaging raiders before they had a chance to escape. However, as the empire continued to expand and everyone became more prosperous. It became harder to create an army that had the same level of professionalism. Instead, there was a reliance on non-Roman troops to address the security needs. This changed the identity of the army and the kinds of strategies that were utilized.

In the case of society, the army was a reflection of how the Romans had become a victim of their own success. This occurred with many administrators and planners willing to innovate in order to address the underlying challenges. As a substitute, they began to rely on different segments of society (i.e. minorities and other ethnic groups). Over the course of time, this would create shifts in Roman identity and loyalties. When this happened, many individuals were no longer willing to support the army. Instead, they had become Christians who believed that many of the current practices were a part of a larger plan. As they wanted to protect their own interests over those of: the community and state (which helped contribute to the decline of the Roman government).

Conclusion

Clearly, the Roman army was weakened by the introduction of non-Roman troops. This was a part of larger trend in society, with many ethnic and religious groups (i.e. Christians) beginning to play a dominate role. Over the course of time, these transformations were resulting in the diluting of Roman identify and loyalty. This was occurring with a reliance on mercenaries, who reduced the underlying levels of professionalism in the army.

At the same time, Christianity transformed the customs and traditions of civil society / the military. These trends created a situation where many people believed that Rome's decline was predicted in the book of Revelations. As a result, they were no longer loyal to the empire and began to create a feudal system that protected the wealthy against incursions from Germanic tribes (who were becoming more brazen). This is illustrating how many Romans lost their sense of identity because of these changes. The shifts in its military structure were signs of increasing internal and external threats the empire was facing.