Psychology concepts and applications

Psychology

First of all, a good scientist will be characterized by precision, both in terms of their research methodology, as well as the way they decide to match that with their existing theory hunches and the final conclusions. Everything starts off with a personal opinion or a hunch, but this is usually based on an existing theory or, at least, on the veridical premises that already exist. Based on these, the scientist will come up with the hypothesis, turn them into predictions and use evidence to back everything up. As we can see, the entire process is very accurate and the final truthfulness of the conclusions count on the process being very precise.

Second, a good scientist will need to be skeptical. In my opinion, this is something that is very closely connected with the idea that a scientist will always leave faith, personal beliefs or anything out of the rational sphere from his final explanation or conclusions. While on one hand, a good scientist will need to be open to good ideas as well, so as to be able to come up with new reflections related to the sphere in which he works in, on the other hand he will be careful not to believe a final conclusion until everything has shown that that is the only possible true conclusion in that particular problem.

Being skeptical is also a mean by which a good scientist can be encouraged not to limit himself to a certain perspective, but to come up with new ideas, to develop more on the theories he has already proven true and to push the limits forward by continuously asking questions on why something happens, why a certain theory is the best possible explanation for certain premises and, overall, why events and phenomena are related by that particular theory being true. Everything that a scientist does needs to be backed by the skeptical conclusion that there is always something behind the explanation as well.

Third, a good scientist will need to rely on empirical evidence for their conclusions and the proof that these conclusions are true. This quality that someone has to fulfill in order to be considered a good scientist is, in fact, a continuation of the previous quality that has been discussed. A scientific method needs scientific arguments for the final conclusion, otherwise it has no real value and cannot be differentiated from a purely subjective opinion.

As a continuation of this quality that a scientist needs, we can point out that a good scientist will always take the objective over the subjective approach. This means that he will always objectively evaluate the existing facts and premises, use objective means, mechanisms and instruments in order to turn them into an objective conclusion of the facts.

Following on this path means that the final conclusions can have scientific value.

Another important quality that a scientist must have is the willingness to make risky predictions. There are several things included here that need to be discussed. First of all, the scientist needs to have the capacity of going beyond the true vs. false premise at the beginning of his process, but rather choose to simply state a fact or a theory, which might also be false. This will expand the area in which a scientist will be willing to make predictions and will thus increase the possibility that the scientist will discover more than he has actually set out to do, but also will expand the area of instruments and mechanisms that he will be able to use in his research.

On the other hand, the idea they state must be refutable, which means that the good scientist will need to accept the fact that his proposed theory may, at some point, be refuted by the arguments that have been discovered lately. This of course does not necessarily mean that it will, but that it may be if the arguments are gathered. This also expands the basis of research, but will also open the negative argumentation side, which will help a good scientist move away from wrong hypothesis.

Finally, a good scientist needs to manifest openness. I think there are two aspects to this. First of all, there is something we have previously referred to: the openness towards new ideas, the capacity to be willing to search for new explanations to existing phenomena and to be looking for new ways in which research can be improved.

On the other hand, it is also a reference to being open towards the other scientists and the scientific community. The scientific world often makes progress by common research, by sharing ideas, by putting together conclusions, which not only helps the scientific world move forward, but also the individual scientist find different solutions to problems and questions he has had related to his own research. At the same time, it is a way by which new developments can be made.

Question

The best explanation of negative reinforcement is the fact that it involves the removal of something unpleasant. On the other hand, positive reinforcement means that the enforcement brings about a pleasant consequence, which will make a positive response more likely.

In Dorothy's case, let's first take a look at the problem itself and try to explain what the problem is with Dorothy's mother. As we have seen from the question, Dorothy's elderly mother has had an operation. There are two important things to be emphasized here and which affect the mother's independence, increasing her dependability on Dorothy.

First of all, she is elderly, so, from the very beginning, even before her operation, there is definitely a certain assumption from her mother that she has to be taken care of, which means that she will limit the activities which she could do herself, simply because of her intrinsic belief that her daughter needs to perform those for her. In this category could go any basic activities such as fetching her own glass of water or going out alone for short walks.

Second, she has also had an operation, which further increases her belief that she needs to be attended and care for. The spectrum of activities which she beliefs need to be performed for her now increases to include washing herself or maybe even eating. She probably decides to no longer leave the bed, which obviously will not encourage her independence as an individual and will make her fully dependent on Dorothy.

We can classify the methods by which Dorothy can help her mother become more independent by either positive or negative reinforcement. The problem in this case is that reinforcement is difficult to find with Dorothy's mother, who is an elderly individual, often approaching the end of one's life and making it more difficult to find motivations to live on at the same intensity, especially following an operation, like in this case.

Positive reinforcement methods will need to identify first of all those areas that can still be used as motivation. Let's start with simple behaviors such as sitting straight in bed, which can be rewarded, if these later lead to increased courage in getting out of bed, with help form Dorothy. Upon sitting up in bed, the mother can be rewarded with a music that she used to be listening to when she was younger or with one of her favorite dishes.

However, in my opinion, positive reinforcement should probably come in the form of inducement for the mother towards rebuilding the capacity to do things she used to do in the past. At the same time, it is also importance to increase the capacity of the mother to feel needed around the house, like she certainly was at some point. For example, words should emphasize that sitting up, as a primary step before getting out of bed, should be only the first step towards going into the kitchen at some point and cooking again the dishes that the entire family used to love. It is always important for an old person to feel needed around the house.

Probably, negative reinforcement should also be targeted in a similar manner towards rebuilding the confidence and independence status for the mother. As such, not going into the mother's bedroom for a certain period of time might induce her the need to slowly start getting up and try to go out of the room herself. At the same time, it will take away the presence of Dorothy in her room, which will always give her a constant feeling that she does not need to do things herself or take things upon herself. Removing the stimulus of Dorothy's presence in the room might induce the behavior of her moving around.

In a similar manner, old people are usually very attached to the places where they have been useful, such as in the kitchen. Dorothy boasting of her own activities in the kitchen will create the feeling with the mother that she needs to get back into the kitchen or in the garden, for example. The fact that getting back into these activities will remove the negative reinforcement of somebody else doing her job around the house might change her behavior and get her to move around much faster.

As previously mentioned, all of these things that were mentioned are decided by an evaluation and a decision of the things that still motivate Dorothy's mother, assuming that she has not reached an age where she is indifferent about things. Dorothy can promise, as positive reinforcements, small gifts as well, such as books or music, which can grow in importance and value once the willingness to become independent again starts manifesting with Dorothy's mother. Some of the negative reinforcements will simply include things like removing some of the bitter medicine from the list of medicines that needs to be taken under all conditions.

Question

There are several situations or conditions when punishment will fail to enforce the desired finality. One of these situation occurs when punishment is administered either inappropriately or mindlessly, in other words, when punishment is administered instead of another instrument that would have a positive result or is administered without thought, without having in mind the final objective of imposing or encouraging a change in behavior.

The rationality of punishment needs to follow a certain logical path. One cannot apply a punishment without having some prior premise on which to act in this manner. For example, the punishment will be applied to a child or student after a certain fact occurs rather than before that, because otherwise the consequences might be exactly the opposite of those actually expected to happen. At the same time, it is important to also keep track of the result of the punishment, so that this is used only in those situations when it is likely to pay off.

Second, punishment will not positively work when the recipient is not likely to take the punishment for an educational act or an act by which a finality is observed, but will take it as a personal attack on his individual. This is often the case with physical punishments. The incapacity to adapt the punishment to the behavior and characteristics of the individual, as well as his background (someone who has been physically abused in the past is always likely to look upon this form of coercion as something abusive and negative) and past experiences, will lead to the individual not being able to respond positively to the punishment.

Third, the punishment should not be tied to certain particular circumstances, because it will lose its effectiveness of correcting the behavior itself and will only become a way of inducing the individual to change the circumstances and avoid being caught doing the respective thing. The example with the children getting caught and being punished while eating sweets in the kitchen before dinner is a good example of a punishment that will not work: the children will probably still eat sweets before dinner, but will do it in a different place, so as not to get caught.