Virtue ethics, libertarianism, and deontological approaches to morality

Religion, Libertarianism and Virtue Ethics

Religion is a social institution, which grows out of individuals' collective attempt to structure and understand the university (McGonigal, 2012). It is a natural consequence of human behavior and social groups. It endeavors to explain occurrences and social inequalities. In so doing, religion tends to justify inequalities, thus, provides a foundation for religious identification, which often breeds social conflict (McGonigal).

Libertarianism is a political philosophy, which claims that every person is the absolute owner of his own life (New World Encyclopedia, 2008). It believes that a person can do anything with himself or property for as long as he respects the rights of others to their own lives and properties. As an ethical theory, libertarianism asserts that the best political, social, and economic system is one, which governs the least. It confers the greatest personal or individual liberty while minimizing government action, regulation and sanction. It opposes socialism. To some extent, some libertarians are considered anarchists. The two broad types of libertarianism are consequentialism and the rights theory. The rights theory asserts that all interaction should be voluntary and consensual. It prohibits force, the threat of force and fraud. Consequentialism allows the use of force if it redounds to the good of society (New World Encyclopedia).

Virtue Ethics

This emphasizes the virtues or moral character in contrast to the mere performance of duties, observance of rules or the consequences of actions (Hursthouse, 2008). Its central concepts are virtue, practical wisdom, and eudaimonia. Virtue is a concept of something, which makes its possessor good. Practical wisdom enables the possessor to do the right thing. And eudaimonia means living a life of virtue (Hursthouse).

Teleology and Deontology

These are two of three major methods in the study of ethics (Frazier, 2012). Broadly, deontology emphasizes rules while teleology emphasizes the end-result of action. Teleology is also called consequentialism. Deontology is the older concept, which dates back to the ancient Greeks period as a Divine Command Theory, referred to in Plato's Euthyphro. Teleological ethics became a formal theory only in the 18th and 19th centuries (Frazier).

Deontology

The Divine Command Theory establishes that an act is right if God has so declared (Frazier, 2012). Only relevant actions, which comply with the Divine Command, are moral. Intention, desire and consequences have no weight. Socially and politically, this approach or its systems are founded on non-aggression. The initiation of force against a human being has no moral justification. It rejects physical violence, political coercion such as taxation or suppression of speech. Its creators are libertarians like Murray Rothbard (Frazier).

Teleology

Its essence draws from consequentialism, which deals with the end effect (Frazier, 2012). As the founder of utilitarianism stated, people should strive after the greatest good for the greatest number. Morality is measured by the impact of an act on society as a whole. As Utilitarian Jeremy Bentham said, it works for the greatest good of the greatest number. The greatest positive good is what makes an act moral. In contrast to deontology, teleology does not observe previous rules. An act is moral or immoral according to the circumstances (Frazier).

White Collar Crime

This is a non-violent act of deception, which tried by the State o (Moore, 2012). It is prosecuted by prison sentences, big fines and restitution to the victims. The most common types are embezzlement, bribery and blackmail, fraud and obstruction of justice (Moore).

Embezzlement

This is stealing or taking property belonging to another person or business, often in the form of money (Moore, 2012). If it is property, it involves stealing while the property is in entrusted to the person who embezzles (Moore).

Sexual Harassment

This comes in different forms, such as physical sexual gestures, crude jokes, written letters or emails, and even direct sexual comments about one's body or clothing (Tolle, 2012). It is physical sexual harassment to be touched or rubbed against in an uncomfortable way, being stared at in a sexually suggestive way or subjected to a clearly sexual gesture (Tolle).

A Hostile Work Environment

This is an environment where occurrences are not welcome or comfortable, repetitious, and disrupt the performance of one's work (Tolle, 2012). Sexual harassment is one of those occurrences. Any threat to the performance of one's job puts the person in a hostile work environment. Not all situations create a hostile work environment, however, Being teased by someone on occasion or an occasional unpleasant comment creates a hostile work environment (Tolle).

Unfriendly and uncomfortable comments and gestures should be stopped from escalating into a hostile work environment (Tolle, 2012). The offended person should note down the incident and place the date and then notify her supervisor immediately. If there is no sufficient relief of the situation or the hostile environment persists, the offended person should secure help from the Equal Employment Opportunity counselor within six weeks from the incident (Tolle). If the person harassing is the supervisor, the offended employee should report the incident to the next higher official (Carabelli, 2012) If there no action, legal action should be taken. The offended employee should present all the documentary evidence needed to meet the preponderance requirement (Carabelli). #