Effects of school uniforms on student performance and behavior

School uniforms for students are becoming more and more popular across the country. Research suggest that schools with a mandatory school-wide uniform policy have better attendance, better behavior, fewer discipline referrals, and more school spirit. Children seem to become more focused on academics. They are also easily identified on campus, in the community, and on field trips, making general safety another benefit of wearing uniforms.

It is hypothesized that behavior in schools which require their students to wear uniforms will be better than those schools which do not with respect to discipline and behavior.

This study will use existing empirical research. The independent variable is wearing school uniforms. There are two levels of independent variables, with school uniforms and without school uniforms. The dependent variable is student behavior. Existing empirical research will provide proof that wearing school uniforms has a positive effect on student behavior.

Mandated Uniforms in School: A Benefit for Students and Educators Alike

The scenarios are endless. A young boy was left dead in the street after his Air Jordans and Raiders jacket are stolen from his body (Jones, 2000). In another city, children playing on a school playground run for cover as a stranger shoots bullets towards them. At another schoolyard, a fight breaks out between two opposing gangs who can be identified by the colors they are wearing. More and more cases of youth-related crimes are reported each year (McWhirter, McWhirter, and McWhirter, l998). In response to increasing youth crime regarding clothing, many communities choose to incorporate uniforms as part of a general safety program.

While educators and parents have long assumed the many benefits inherent in school uniforms, there is actually little empirical data supporting this ideology (DSN, 2004). However, new research shows that uniforms not only keep children looking neat and presentable, but they also carry a positive impact in numerous other areas.

Uniforms are usually part of comprehensive educational reform programs instituted across the United States, which are prompted by stricter regulations, including the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (DSN, 2004). These new requirements demand that school districts increase average achievement levels on an annual basis. The new research shows that uniforms are a key component of these programs.

In a 2004 study, three public school districts in divergent regions were examined. These were Denver, Baltimore and Aldine, Texas, a suburb of Houston (DSN, 2004). Researchers used four criteria to determine whether or not there had been improvements in a particular district: a "coherent school reform strategy that includes school uniforms"; geographic diversity; accessibility to administrators and school staff; and the successful implementation of a school uniform policy.

An independent research firm headed by consultant Dr. Scott Joftus, conducted the study. "All of the schools we studied indicated a vast preference for school uniforms, based on the improved levels of performance and academic achievement," Joftus said (DSN, 2004). "They were 'uniformly' in favor of their decision to implement them and consider them a key part of their educational reform programs."

While previous studies supported the idea that school uniforms hold a wide range of consumer benefits, the last major studies conducted by firms, including the NPD Group, date back two years or more (DSN, 2004). A 1996 study by the U.S. Department of Education revealed that after Long Beach, Calif., adopted uniforms -- one of the first districts to do so -- elementary and middle school crime decreased by 36%, weapons offenses decreased 50%, assault and battery dropped 34%, and vandalism fell 19%.

The new research shows that these positive findings remain consistent across numerous school districts in the country, demonstrating that uniforms work in various climates (DSN, 2004). "This study offers additional evidence that school uniforms can be a very effective element of school reform policies," said Dr. Carl Cohn, former superintendent of the Long Beach Unified School District, which was the first school district to require uniforms in grade school. "School uniform policies bring a sense of order and discipline to the classroom environment and help students focus on why they're there: to learn."

When analyzing the issue of increasing juvenile crime, many research questions arise. What role do school uniforms play in providing a safer environment for students (Jones, 2000)? Are parents supportive of uniforms? How does the public feel about uniforms? How can uniforms benefit both students and educators? What can one learn from schools that have successfully implemented uniform policies?

This paper aims to discuss uniform-related issues (Jones, 2000). It will incorporate a rationale for uniform wearing, legal implications of uniform policies; and the opinions of parents, students, educators, and those opposing uniform policy adoption. In conclusion, recommendations on successfully implementing uniforms will be provided.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A nationwide school epidemic is being highly publicized across the United States, as school violence, truancy, vandalism, theft, drugs and weapons have become more and more prevalent over the past few years (Vanderklis, 1999). These increases have placed pressure on schools and policymakers to act quickly, before the situation gets out of control (Pate, 1999).

These issues, as well as a desire to minimize socioeconomic tensions between the wealthy and the poor, have caused some schools to adopt more stringent dress codes or to require students to wear school uniforms (Vanderklis, 1999). The requirement of uniforms appears to offer a visible means of restoring order to classrooms -- -a quick and ready solution to the problem of public schools, which are rapidly declining.

According to the U.S. Department of Education's Manual on School Uniforms (1996): "Uniforms by themselves cannot solve all of the problems of school discipline, but they can be one positive contributing factor to discipline and safety."

Long Beach, California drew national attention as the first public-school district to adopt mandatory school uniforms (Lumsden, 2001). One year later, dramatic decreases in violence and discipline problems, in addition to higher test scores, were reported (Vanderklis, 1999). Since the mandatory uniform policy was launched in 56 elementary and 14 middle schools in 1994, assault and battery cases in grade school dropped by 34%. Sex offenses dropped 74%, weapons offenses decreased 50%, and vandalism decreased 18%. Physical fights between students decreased by 51%, and there were 32% fewer suspensions. An overall school-crime decrease of 36% was reported.

Starting in 1998, students at John Adams and Truman Middle Schools in Albuquerque were issued mandatory uniforms (Vanderklis, 1999). Less than six months later, both schools experienced a significant improvement in student conduct from the previous year. At John Adams Middle School, discipline referrals fell from 1,565 during the first semester of the previous year to 405. At Truman, referrals dropped from 1,139 to 850.

Isaacson (1998) compared two middle schools in Charleston County, S.C (Vanderklis, 1999). One school had a mandatory uniform policy, while the other did not. A survey of more than 300 sixth to eighth graders said that uniformed students expressed pride and earned higher scores in performance tests. Discipline referrals from the uniformed schools were down 51% from the previous year without uniforms. The middle school without a uniform requirement had more discipline referrals, less school pride, and lost 13 students who decided to attend the out-of-district school that had a uniform policy in place.

In another study, Caruso (1996) and Padgett (1998)discovered that about half of Chicago's 553 public schools, which have a total enrollment of 410,000 students, already required uniforms and many had reported decreases in school violence as a result (Vanderklis, 1999).

More and more schools are following the Long Beach example to mandate school uniforms (Dowling-Sendor, 2002). The White House Manual on School Uniforms suggested that several schools with mandatory uniform policies have shown subsequent decreases in school violence and truancy and increases in positive student behavior (California School News, 1997).

One of the main research questions associated with this paper is whether school uniforms can resolve the problem of school violence (Vanderklis, 1999). It is not likely that they can single-handedly correct this problem. However, it appears that they will certainly help. School uniforms do not represent a universal remedy for all society's problems. The main purpose of a uniform is to set forth and encourage a common commitment, a common resolve that inspires the individual to act as a member of a group. For this reason, uniforms are used in the military, in restaurants, and in sports.

Brown (1998) said that after 35 years in the public schools, he did not believe that uniforms would affect behavior, but they do (Vanderklis, 1999). His children are behaving so much better. He had to see it to believe it.

METHODOLOGY

A. Sampling

This study will use convenience sample. It will involve data from students surveyed in 12 research studies. Students from grades K-12 will be considered.

B. Measures

This paper will use results of various studies to measure the impact of wearing school uniforms on student behavior, school violence and school pride.

C. Design

Youth violence is getting worse and worse (Jones, 2000). In schools across the United States, students are carrying more guns, gang activity is increasing, as is the number of students assaulted because of the clothes they wear. As part of a general safety program, many school districts are considering implementing uniform policies.

The purpose to this study is to prove that wearing school uniforms has a positive effect on student behavior and/or school violence in United States schools. In this paper's review of literature, issues explored include a rationale for policy adoption, legal implications of uniform policies; and the perceptions of parents, students, educators, and those opposing uniform policies. In conclusion, recommendations on successful policy formation will be issued in the Results section.

D. Procedures

It is hypothesized that behavior in schools which require their students to wear uniforms will be better than those schools which do not with respect to discipline and behavior.

This study will use existing empirical research. The independent variable is wearing school uniforms. There are two levels of independent variables, with school uniforms and without school uniforms. The dependent variable is student behavior. Existing empirical research will provide proof that wearing school uniforms has a positive effect on student behavior.

RESULTS

Gang membership, and juvenile crime in general, is increasing rapidly (McWhirter et al., l998). According to Jones (2000): "A fourteen-year-old rode by an East L.A. schoolyard on his bike, randomly firing a semiautomatic weapon at nearly 2,000 children during recess to prove to his gang that he "was worthy." Killings over material goods like tennis shoes and jackets are growing increasingly common nationwide."

"Captain Ray Gott of the L.A. County Sheriff's Dept. stated in an interview with Witkin, "Often the fast route to attention is through money or material goods (McWhirter et al., 1998). Sneakers, coats or cash -kids want it now and the gun can get it." Guns are available and kids have them. A survey of Baltimore public school students showed that 59% of males who came from broken homes have carried a handgun. Firearm murders committed by offenders under the age of 18 in the U.S. have risen from 444 in l984, to 952 in l989. In a survey of inner-city sixth- and eighth-graders, results indicated that 50% had money and/or personal property stolen, some more than once, 32% had carried a weapon to school, and 15% had hit a teacher during the year."

In response to increasing levels of violence in U.S. schools as well as many other concerns, many school districts are adopting strict dress codes and school uniform policies as part of a general program to improve school safety and discipline (Jones, 2000). The following states, according to the U.S. Dept. Of Education and Justice, currently have uniform policies: California, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, New York, Tennessee, Utah, and Virginia. Large public school districts with uniform policies are: Baltimore, Cincinnati, Dayton, Detroit, Los Angeles, Long Beach, Miami, Memphis, Milwaukee, Nashville, New Orleans, Phoenix, Seattle, and St. Louis.

In urban schools with high crime rates, a rigid dress code is often implemented as an attempt to save lives (Jones, 2000). Students who come to school with expensive jewelry and designer clothing are targets for violent thieves. In an effort to protect their students, school boards across the nation have banned students from wearing jewelry with precious stones, gold chains, leather, and fur. In addition, uniforms have helped school officials recognize intruders who come to the school.

In some areas, safety is not the only reason for uniform policy adoption. Students in some schools wear uniforms as a source of pride and affiliation (Jones, 2000). In these cases, schools strive to "establish a calm, businesslike atmosphere at school, in which absenteeism would be reduced and academic performance would rise."

Many schools are adopting a school uniform policy to reduce parents' clothing expenses (Jones, 2000). Uniforms can help eliminate the expensive designer clothes competition that often occurs among students. Discrimination between the "haves" and "have-nots" is often dramatically reduced in schools that have mandatory uniforms. In addition, students learn that clothes do not make a person.

There is a high correlation between style of dress, socioeconomic condition, and academic achievement. Similarities and differences in clothing and appearance correlate with patterns of formal academic grouping, in addition to informal student interaction. According to Jones (2000): "These patterns correspond with the color and class alignments in the community; generally they correspond to the color and class alignments in the nation's society. It seems as if we are to believe that academic ability and class standing invariably are a reflex of clothing and appearance."

Research shows that uniforms reduce much of the inequality in public school education. Teachers often see students who dress poorly as being less able to perform academically (Jones, 2000). Thus, these students may be tracked into lower level classes at an early age simply because of the way they dress. Uniforms help create a better environment for discipline and learning. According to Stover (l990, p. 26): "Vulgar, obscene, and sloppy dress and hairstyles send the wrong message to students. Setting appropriate standards for students forces them to dress in a way that helps them respect themselves and their schools."

Therefore, uniforms can establish a better school environment for learning by reducing stigmatizing distractions.

In general, students are likely to vote against wearing uniforms (Jones, 2000). However, many seem to enjoy it. Out of all students queried at the Latin Grammar Magnet schools in Kansas City, Missouri, 33% stated they enjoyed wearing uniforms (Robinson-Lewis, l991). Philomina Harshaw, principal of Carver Magnet School in Kansas City, reported that "children feel good about themselves as school uniforms build a sense of pride" (U.S. Dept. Of Education and Justice, 1996, p. 6). Sharon Carter, a guidance counselor in a Tennessee school, says that ninety percent of the students elect to wear their uniforms every day even though the uniform policy is voluntary.

In order to reduce some negative student perceptions concerning uniforms, a school in Corona, California devised a creative idea (Jones, 2000). Each grade wears a different color with the name of their grade imprinted on their uniform. In this light, "the uniforms are perceived as status symbols rather than required dress" (Loesch, l995, p. 29).

If parents are involved from the inception of the policy, parental support is typically very high when it comes to uniform policy adoption. Therefore, parents should be included in the first meeting about uniforms.

A 1992 study by Woods and Ogletree on parents' opinions of the uniform student dress code at Chicago Elementary School revealed that most parents agreed that children are teased and pressured by their peers about the clothes they wore (Jones, 2000). Most parents agreed that wearing uniforms eliminates competition over clothes and provided some degree of safety. Eighty percent felt that buying uniforms provides potential financial savings on school clothes. Ninety-three percent believed that a uniform dress code policy helps children understand that clothes do not make a person. Most parents reported that wearing uniforms could promote a feeling of unity. As a result of wearing uniforms, most parents agreed that their children were more focused on learning and studying, and wearing uniforms improved conduct. The majority of parents disagreed that wearing uniforms reduced their child's freedom of expression in appearance and that wearing uniforms intruded the private lives of the students.

Educators also report positively on the changes that have occurred in their schools since uniform policies were implemented (Jones, 2000). In Long Beach, California, in which the uniform policy affects 58,500 students, school officials reported a positive change after uniforms were worn for one year.

However, not all educators and parents support school uniforms (Jones, 2000). The restriction of student and parental rights to freedom of expression in appearance, intrusion into the private lives of students, and lack of research to show relationships between uniforms and academic achievement, are a few of the reasons that parents and educators reject uniform dress code. In a 1992 study, the majority of parents polled disagreed that wearing uniforms promoted positive interaction between children and their peers (Woods and Ogletree). Some argue that uniforms are old-fashioned. Research also shows that some parents support their children's rights to dress as they please.

Evans (l996) presents numerous arguments against school uniforms (Jones, 2000). At the elementary level, he argues, there are fewer problems that uniforms can solve, such as gang activity and violence, although this is the level that politicians and the media support in wearing uniforms. In addition, Evans believes that existing dress codes should already protect the safety of students and discourage gang clothing. Thus, there is no need for uniforms and the uniform issue is not important. When it comes to voluntary uniforms, Evans argues that although this option will help schools to avoid legal conflicts, uniforms do not work at the high school level.

When it comes to gangs, Evans (l996, p. 139) states, "Ironically, mandating the wearing of school uniforms might even make it easier to be a gang member since school administrators could no longer readily recognize the trappings of the gangs." Uniforms reflect only a cosmetic change and will not discourage the gang mentality and antisocial behavior associated with gangs.

DISCUSSION

A safe and disciplined learning environment must be treated as a basic requirement for schools. Students should feel safe when they are in school (Jones, 2000). If this essential need is violated, it is difficult for students to focus on their studies. In schools with high crime rates, uniforms may improve safety. Intruders would be identified easily. Gang clothing would not start fights on school grounds. Students would not be victimized and killed as often for wearing desirable clothes that are not a part of the school uniform. Research shows that uniform wearing reduces behavioral problems in the schools. As a result, uniforms have enabled schools to be more conducive to learning.