History and effectiveness of continuation schools for at-risk students

¶ … Schools & at-Risk Students

Continuation Classes for at-Risk Students

Many students at the high school level today find it a struggle to perform well in the traditional classroom setting. For various and diverse reasons, the traditional school structure does not work well for certain students - some who are at-risk, others who have going foul of the law or have become involved with substance abuse issues, and still others who are plainly ill-suited by nature to conventional structure. In search of a remedy for that situation, school districts across the United States have over the past few decades established "continuation" or "alternative" educational settings. Often these settings provide an independent study format - with support and guidance by qualified teachers and staff - and students attending the continuation schools become recipients of a high school diploma, which is the very minimum requirement in the 21st Century economy.

This paper reviews and examines the history and challenges of continuation school programs, defining and identifying what works, what does not work, and why the continuation concept is appropriate for at-risk youth.

WHAT IS the DEFINITION of an at-RISK STUDENT?

The at-risk student in today's educational environment is one who likely comes from a "dangerous neighborhood," according to an article in the American School Board Journal (Hardy, 2007). Dangerous in this context might mean a high-crime area, or an area heavily influenced by street gang activities. The at-risk student may live though some of the social dangers that are identified with a poverty-ridden environment, where inadequate housing is the norm and poor nutrition and family stress are every day realities. at-risk basically means that there is a risk that the student may potentially drop out of school, or become involved in inappropriate behaviors (illegal drug usage, alcohol abuse, sexual promiscuity, gang violence or psychological problems like depression), and somehow not fit in to the mainstream of student communities. There is an impression - not often true - that continuation schools are places where students who have been kicked out of high schools go because they are incorrigible or on drugs or into violence. That may be true in some cases, but the positive stories of students who are or were caught in tough social and family situations perhaps don't get told often enough.

The article by Hardy zeros in on a successful continuation program in the George Washington Community School in Indianapolis. Even though Hardy admits that "schools alone cannot solve the problems of at-risk children whose families are mired in poverty," he points out that the George Washingtons School has put together a staff of teachers and professionals "that will not accept failure." think if I would have been at a different school, I would have dropped out by now," said Leonardo Salinas, 17 years old, a graduate of George Washington who came to the school as an at-risk student. He came from a low-income family and had dropped out of regular high school so he could work a job that helped support his family. His working hours begin at 3:00 P.M., and go to midnight. "By the time I got home," he told Hardy for the article, "I'm tired. I just want to eat some cereal and go to bed." But having the flexibility to attend the continuation school at hours convenient to his own schedule allowed Salinas to not only get his high school degree, but to finish 10th in a class of 65.

Now, following graduation from George Washington continuation school, Salinas has been offered a $30,000 scholarship and has been accepted at 10 colleges. "They just kept pushing and pushing," Salinas said of his teachers, who motivated him and were persistent with him. And hence, he is no longer at risk.

Another student, Britney Keller, was at-risk and had to drop out of high school to help her mother; her mother suffered an "ectopic pregnancy" and so Britney stayed home to help her mom with the newborn and his 1-year-old brother. "At one point," Britney was quoted as saying in the article, "I even gave up." She was in sixth grade when she had to leave school to help her mom survive. By May 2007, Britney had turned 18 and was a graduate of George Washington with a 3.8 GPA - and she was a member of the National Honor Society.

So one can see there are positive stories associated with at-risk students - that is, when quality continuation programs are in place to assist those students. In the case of Britney, she was raised in a community where only 5% of adults in the surrounding neighborhood have college educations; and moreover, 89% of students at George Washington continuation school qualify for subsidized lunches, and indication of the extreme poverty in the area - and an environment that clearly produces at-risk students looking for an opportunity to raise themselves up out of the legacy of failure.

The National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) explains that at-risk students' "...skills, knowledge, motivation and/or academic ability are significantly below those of the 'typical' student in the...curriculum in which they are enrolled" (Walsh, 2006). In addition, Walsh, of Iowa State University, states that at-risk students are also likely to display characteristics like "...low academic self-concept, unrealistic grade and career expectations..."

Beyond that, at-risk students also are noted for having "...unfocused career objectives, extrinsic motivation, external locus of control. Low self-efficacy, inadequate study skills..." along with a personal history that includes "passive learning" and a misinformed understanding that learning is about memorizing, not solving problems or seeking answers to issues. Moreover, Walsh continues, at-risk students may simply have made poor choices or decisions that had a negative impact on their learning experiences; at-risk students are not necessarily teenagers, either, Walks explains. Indeed they may be adults who are attempting to return to the academic environment after a number of years of absence, and are on shaky ground as to their own self-esteem and belief systems. at-risk students may also be people with physical limitations, or with emotional or academic limitations who are motivated but not sophisticated in the ways and means of learning in a structured situation.

The NACADA report suggests that when at-risk students attend continuation schools, there should be "specially designed courses" for them which focus on "critical thinking skills," a strategy for evaluating personal and academic goals, and a strategy (uniquely drawn up for each specific individual) to meet those goals.

HOW DO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OPERATE?

In an article in the journal Thrust for Educational Leadership (Necochea, et al., 1996), the authors explain that some school districts incorporate "eclecticism" into the fabric of their continuation programs. That means doing what other traditional schools can't or won't do; it also means using creative curriculum designs that offer incentives to continuation students to succeed in their education endeavors.

A few of the creative approaches that teachers offer include: a) students can establish their own time-lines to complete assignments (with teachers signing off on the departure from regular time lines); b) students work within a "credit accrual" system (students can complete credits as quickly or as slowly as they wish, depending on their motivation for learning); c) "modified attendance procedures" result in fewer "punitive measures" applied for absenteeism and a more open-minded approach to encouraging constructive attendance; d) since traditional instructional practices are frequently ineffective for at-risk students, teachers and staff work to create fresh strategies such as "hands-on" instructions, "visuals and manipulatives" and "cooperative learning groups." This last example is made possible by the fact that there are reduced class sizes in most continuation schools, which allow teachers to work with students one-on-one in a "hands-on" format. This is also a way to attract teachers to continuation programs, as it is a fact that in many conventional high school settings, classrooms are overcrowded and teachers don't have the chance to work with students one-on-one very often.

The authors of this article also point out that "team-building" among teachers and staff members is a collaborative and supportive strategy in terms of presenting a viable, interesting program for at-risk students. The authors suggest that teachers and administrative leaders at continuations schools - through team building - "tend to" to the following: "encourage and support innovations"; "offer protection from the greater social system"; build a strong "rapport" with students; and also "coordinate the efforts of outside agencies." Through these team-building strategies, the authors continue, a climate of "experimentation" is fostered, and that climate can (and often does) include reaching out into the community to tap into existing resources that perhaps the conventional schools have not done.

Also, teambuilding tends to engender a policy within staff that the authors term "agree to disagree" on a private, professional level. Indeed, diverse opinions and "open communication" are valued policies in successful continuation schools. Moreover, diversity among the teaching staff in continuations contributes to the effectiveness of the program. Another dynamic that the authors of this article mention is the fact that the continuation school must be prepared to respond positively to the "misunderstanding and suspicions" that arise from the community. Especially during times of tight budgets and "declining resources." The team of teachers and staff members working in continuation programs need to "proactively build acceptance, tolerance and celebration" for the successes - albeit they may be small - that at-risk students experience.

An article in the journal Preventing School Failure (Quinn, et al., 2006) has a somewhat different thrust than previous articles mentioned in this review of the literature. Indeed, this scholarly article asserts that while there has been "a tremendous growth" in the availability of alternative educational programs for at-risk young people, there is "little empirical evidence" available today to actually identify the various components that are required to build effective continuation programs. And so the authors present studies of alternative school programs in order to offer some data and information that can be used by educators in building better continuation programs.

The article begins by presenting the possible reasons why so many young people struggle in traditional school settings. One possible reason - presented by scholar and researcher Nicholas Hobbs - is that the emotional problems many children go through are symptoms of "...a malfunctioning ecosystem" rather than any kind of "individual pathology." Hence, when a child fails, or becomes at risk, it is incumbent on the society to not only work with the child, but to "change the system in order to facilitate their growth in areas of competence, independence, responsibility, and self-respect."

Another reason so many students fail to adjust to traditional schools is not the fault of the system, but is the fault of the student. Many young people who end up in continuation or alternative schools display behaviors that are, according to the authors' research, "cynical." These cynical students posses "antisocial attitudes and behaviors" and they have no idea how to strategize educational or career goals; moreover they suffer from behavioral traits that are a result of bad influences from peer groups they themselves have chosen and from whom they apparently have no desire to escape.

Whether true or not, each of these explanations are just that, projected explanations and not a resolution of real educational problems and issues. Meanwhile, the article points to the history of alternative schools dating back to 1921 in England, when the private residential facility known as "Summerhill" was established by innovative educator a.S. Neill. Summerhill became a movement after gaining respect and popularity in Europe and in the U.S.; the administrators and teachers in those schools believed that "traditional schools confined students and did not respect the personal freedom that students needed in order to learn," according to the article. There was also a movement called the "freedom school" movement, which was launched in the American south. This movement was based on the fact that "traditional schools were not appropriate for African-American students" simply because those traditional schools were designed to produce "subjects, not citizens."

While neither of those approaches has caught on with any degree of popularity with school administrators or parents, they both did emphasize innovations not found in traditional schools. And they led to basically three types of alternative or continuation schools: Type I: schools that students (with the consent of their parents) choose to attend because they place emphasis on innovative programs and strategies; Type II: schools that are known as "last chance schools" that students are usually sent to rather than be expelled permanently from conventional schools; and Type III: schools that are "remedial and therapeutic in nature."

There is a need - the authors suggest - to restructure alternative schools and in the meantime there is also a need to rethink how school districts should approach this restructuring. The authors present three scenarios: one, "change the student" (fix the student by offering temporary assignments "that are highly structured" and contain "therapeutic components"); two, "change the school" (build schools with very positive climates that emphasize innovative curriculum and instructional approaches); and three, "Change the educational system" (offer alternative schools that are more progressive and more responsive to students than many of today's continuation schools, which have a reputation as a dumping grounds for incorrigible youth).

All that having been said, the authors go into great detail as to methods of putting the three scenarios into place in American communities, which makes interesting reading for teachers and others interested in improving educational opportunities for young people.

Community College Week (March, 2004) reports that in Rhode Island, the state department of education has put into effect an innovative and experimental program that blends high school and college courses "...and is designed for students who are in danger of dropping out." The concept is called "middle college" receive their high school diplomas after five years, rather than the traditional four years. Why? Administrators contend that extra year "gives at-risk students extra preparation for college as well as confidence to pursue an advanced degree."

Robert Pilkington, among the leaders of the middle college ("Textron Chamber of Commerce Academy") in Providence, RI, said that the middle college concept was launched because "...there aren't any school structures that allow a [high school] senior to move seamlessly into college." The way it works is that students enter middle college at the start of their junior year in high school; at that time they take a combination of high school and college courses, and three years later they graduate. Once they graduate from the middle college, and finish the requirements for college, they can apply the credits they earned at the middle college to community colleges or four-year schools. The concept is partly intended in order for a student to have improved self-esteem. Having already successfully passed some college courses, a student would then feel more comfortable making the transition to a college or university.

The Providence, Rhode Island middle college isn't the first such institution; the article points out that the first middle college opened in 1974 at LaGuardia Community College in New York. There are over 30 such schools now in the United States; and the point here is not to replace continuation schools with middle colleges at all, but rather, to offer that opportunity for students who may be struggling in high school with self-esteem and other problems but would be encouraged about their future careers to be in an advanced program that wasn't necessarily any more difficult academically or intellectually than regular high school. "Middle colleges give struggling students the opportunity to tackle college-level work while making sure they get the remedial help they need," the article concludes.

The student in a middle college environment would be in most cases required to take at least one college-level course per semester, but the class is normally offered in the afternoon or the evening, so that student can continue his or her regular high school experience.

Meantime, turning the attention to an alternative school teacher, the question posed in an article in the journal Educational Leadership (Varlas, 2007) is this: "Why would Joris Ray, starting out as an ambitious first-year teacher in Memphis City Public Schools, choose to work a second shift in an alternative school?" Ray, who was chosen as ASCD's "Outstanding Young Educator" in 2006, says he originally never thought of teaching at risk kids, but when offered a chance to coach a youth basketball team, he discovered the "satisfaction of working with at-risk students." He saw his players "grow and succeed" and realized he needed to be there for them in ways beyond sports. So he became a continuation school teacher and helped raise the self-esteem of students just like he did with his basketball players. "Once you get students seeing beyond today, they tend to make better choices." Those students that are motivated to see the future instead of their problems right now and today "...know that every step they take is going to hinder their progress or propel them further," Ray stated in the article about Memphis Alternative Schools.

But that's just the beginning of Ray's story. Today, Ray is ten years into his employment in Memphis, and he is Director of Alternative Schools and Programs for Memphis City Schools. He leads the district's efforts to serve "...disruptive and at-risk youth who have been unable to succeed in traditional schools." Ray has a three-fold approach to his job; one, he emphasizes hiring and training "highly qualified teachers and staff" who get involved with parents and caregivers in a meaningful way; two, he builds support in the community "...through a strong service learning component"; and three, he emphasizes the need to set high expectations for students in continuation / alternative schools, and uses "proactive prevention models" in order to intervene early when there is a potential problem with an individual student.

Ray says - and this is good advice for present and future teachers who have ambitions to get involved with continuation schools - that his core philosophy is "...successful academics change behavior." it's the mission of this Memphis continuation leader: "Every child, every day, college bound." Meanwhile, as an executive in the school district, Ray used his creative and communication skills and went on radio and cable TV stations "to recruit teachers to come to Memphis City Public Schools and work with at-risk youth," the article continues.

Very soon, after Ray used those communication skills, "more than 500 educators from across the United States were standing in line to teach in alternative schools," the writer explains. Ray says, "There used to be a time when at-risk settings drew teachers who didn't want to teach and students who didn't want to learn." But those days in Memphis are "long gone, the writer goes on. Ray witnesses the passion and the hard work of the teachers he has recruited in Memphis, and he tells the reporter for this story that it is not just about working for alternative schools, but it is also about serving - and developing - stakeholders in the "future of the Memphis community." Ray also knows how to raise money for the program; he has received more than $250,000 in state and federal grants in the past few years, and is proud of that fact.

He says that his mission is not just to lead and recruit talent to teach at-risk youth in alternative schools; it is to let the public know that alternative schools "...increase the graduation rate," they "decrease the dropout rate" and they help students "believe in themselves, be productive, and move forward." For some students, Ray goes on, his experience at an alternative school may well be "the first time they've felt that someone cares about them and wants them to do well."

Notwithstanding the big success rate in Memphis (as mentioned above), an article in Preventing School Failure (Tissington, et al., 2007), points out that there are serious shortages of teachers to work in continuation / alternative environments. One of the reasons for this shortage of teachers is due to No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the authors assert, because now teachers must be "highly qualified" in order to work in any classroom environment, and this has caused some teachers to simply leave teaching. Making the problem worse is the "growing number of diverse student learners," Tissington writes, especially in the southwestern United States, in schools that are large, urban "or have high minority enrollment and poverty concentrations."

The teacher shortage for at-risk students is "...likely to rise due to increasing enrollments of students with disabilities and retiring teachers," the article continues. Presently there are 46 states - and the District of Columbia - that report having some form of "alternative route for certification" of teachers for continuation classes. These teaching certification programs are called "Alternative Certification Programs" (ACP) and they vary from conventional / traditional teacher certification in three ways: one, length and "structure"; two, "delivery mode"; and three, "candidate population." Teachers qualified for ACP certification often have "little or no" supervision / internships as they begin their careers. They are desperately needed, and hence they are thrown into the classroom immediately, many of them.

Who are the typical ACP candidates? The article in Preventing School Failure says these teachers are second-career professionals with a bachelor's degree "in their chosen content areas and may have their degrees in an unrelated field." That flies in the face of what school districts want, which is to have teachers working in their content areas. The authors ask, "So where does that leave our nation's at-risk children?" The answer is unclear, but research shows a mixed bag with reference to training teachers for alternative school work. Indeed, when the research was done that compared teacher preparation in regular schools environments with teacher preparation in ACP situations, "the traditional teacher education programs both prepare teachers better and allow teachers to feel more prepared upon leaving the program," according to the article.

No matter what researcher are finding out about the training and certification of teachers for continuation schools, the truth is that "...the need for quality teachers for children at risk is a problem that needs a solution," Tissington's article asserts. One thing that is never in doubt and that is the quality of the teacher - no matter how they were trained or in what discipline - "has a direct and significant impact on the amount and quality of student learning." And the most critical aspects of teacher training programs that are truly high quality include "comprehensive pedagogy, internships with mentoring programs, program standards, and state certification requirements," the article explains.

That said, it is incumbent upon school districts to make sure these components are incorporated into ACP programs, the author states. When the above-mentioned components are indeed part of the training program, the likelihood that trained teachers will be ready and able to "meet the real needs" of their alternative students is greatly enhanced. That in turn will increase the probability that students in alternative / continuation programs will have "successful learning outcomes."

One way to assure that when newly certified teachers - who are entering alternative programs for the first time - are successful and have a positive impact on the students is through mentoring programs. Mentoring "is critical" in terms of being able to reduce teacher attrition," the article emphasizes. Especially for special education and ACP candidates, mentoring is vitally important, because throwing a teacher into a continuation program - notwithstanding that the teacher has been fully certified - without an internship or mentoring is potentially harmful to the at risk student's chances of succeeding and learning in that environment.

What are the characteristics that effective mentors have? Tissington relates that mentors should be chosen based on their "teaching excellence"; their "disposition toward collaboration" with other teachers and professionals; their commitment to growing stronger in their role and their knowledge of how to do the job; and to their "expertise in priority areas such as classroom management and content areas."

CONCLUSION

This paper has provided a review and analysis of the literature available regarding at-risk students, their need to have a quality continuation / alternative education, and the great need for high quality teachers to make these programs successful. The drop-out rate in America, especially in big urban areas, remains a serious problem. The at-risk young people are out there and in need of leadership and alternatives to gangs, drugs, idleness and stagnation. The logical way to attack that problem is through great - not merely "good" - continuation programs.