Security Issues in IEEE Wlan

¶ … Security Issues in IEEE WLAN 802.11

In geek speak, the IEEE 802.11b standard is the family of specifications created by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. For wireless, Ethernet local area networks in 2.4 gigahertz bandwidth space. The rest of us English-language users should think of IEEE 802.11b as a way to connect our computers and other gadgets to each other and to the Internet at very high speed without any cumbersome wiring -- or a significant price tag. Providing as much wireless speed as it does at its modest price promises to have profound implications for a world bent of anytime/anywhere communication. -- IEEE 802.11b Working Group, 2004

Introduction relatively new standard introduced by the Institute for Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) known as 802.11b has been gaining a lot of momentum in the marketplace and is about to change the nature of telecommunications (Patrick 2001). With its approval from the Standards Board Review Committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in September 2002, a veritable "Wi-Fi" (wireless fidelity) revolution is taking place in portions of the unlicensed spectrum, based on the IEEE 802.11b standard. "Products equipped with 802.11g Wi-Fi capability have been on the market for some time now, but a green light from the IEEE is huge step for 802.11g that could usher in a high-speed wireless networking standard" (Yo! G. September 2003). This new technology is threatening to undermine parts of the business plans of traditional telephone companies; further, such Wi-Fi technology may be an enabler for a future "killer app" (Anderson, Bikson, Hundley & Neu 2003). Actually, two brand new standards have been established: 802.11a, which extended the speed of 802.11 to 54 megabits a second (but is not backwards compatible with 802.11b); and 802.11g, which operates at 20 megabytes a second and is compatible (Patrick 2001). Nevertheless, Driscoll (2002) suggests that until there is a pressing need for ultra-high-speed Internet access, or for a proprietary high-speed Ethernet network to allow exchange of very large files, 802.11b will likely remain the primary standard in most public places for the next several years.

According to Driscoll (2002), 802.11b is the wireless Ethernet standard created in 1997 by the IEEE with the goal of creating unified technology standards. The original 802.11 provided wireless Ethernet and Internet with top speeds of one to two megabits per second (Mbps); however, in reality, it was frequently much slower. The letter "b" was added to the nomenclature in 1999 as a new standard extending the theoretical top speed of 802.11 to 11 Mbps, with an actual speed typically between three and six Mbps; Driscoll suggests this level of processing speed "is plenty fast enough for virtually all of today's broadband applications" (2002, p. 31). The signals for 802.11b are transmitted on the 2.4 gigahertz (Ghz) frequency range of the broadcast spectrum; the technology has quickly become the de facto wireless Internet standard of choice, with more than 11 million consumers already having some form of 802.11b access, according to a CNN study. Today, 802.11b exceeds wireless application protocol (WAP), 3G (third generation wireless), and Bluetooth; further, the 802.11b can be used with virtually any type of laptop and many PDAs as well (Driscoll 2002).

Unlike WAP and 3G, 802.11b is not restricted to tiny cell phone screens; rather, any laptop, PDA, or desktop computer can be equipped with an 802.11b compatible card for access to the Internet. In addition, 802.11b has far more range than Bluetooth, providing 11 Mbps, on average, at 75 feet from a transmitting source (known as an "access point" or "node") and slowing down to 1 Mbps at a maximum distance of about 1,500 feet. By sharp contrast, Bluetooth's transmission distance is about 100 feet; however, it should be pointed out that Bluetooth may be especially useful in fixed devices such as Internet-enabled appliances or wireless connections from PCs to printers (Driscoll 2002).

The flexibility, reliability, and "retrofitability" of 802.11b have also made it an extremely popular choice for home networking and for retrofitting older buildings where Category-5 local area network cables would be difficult or impossible to string. A local area network (or "LAN") is a configuration of interconnected computers that can share data, applications, and resources, such as printers. Computers in a LAN can be separated by distances of up to a few miles but are typically used in offices or across university campuses. A LAN provides for fast and effective transfer of information within a group of users and reduces operational costs as well (Spurgeon, 1997). Each such computer network can be categorized as either a LAN or a wide area network (or "WAN"). A LAN configuration will generally consist of a fairly limited number of computers in a single building or building complex. A WAN, on the other hand, may connect an enormous number of machines on a global basis; in fact, by connecting a number of existing networks, the Internet was born. "Today, the Internet is a worldwide combination of WANs and LANs involving millions of machines. Each network in the Internet is connected to another network by a machine called a router" (Brookshear, 2000 p. 142). The closing decade of the 20th century witnessed the Internet connecting millions of computers all over the world. During these earlier years of development, a number of commercial computer network and data services also provided at least indirect connection to the Internet. These technologies provide the ability for more than one computer to communicate within a defined network: "A LAN is defined as a privately owned data communications system that usually covers a limited territory, hence the term 'local area,'" (Spurgeon 1997, p. 17). All such networks employ so-called "protocols"; these are simply a set of rules by which computers exchange information through a single shared connection. These protocols allow the transmission of data without "collisions" which can be caused by the simultaneous transmission between two or more computers; computers today on most LANs use protocols known as Ethernet or Token Ring (Spurgeon 1997). In 2000, for example, the University of California at Berkeley identified security flaws in the Wired Equivalent Protocol encryption standard used by 802.11 cards and access points, making them vulnerable to decryption by hackers. The IEEE is working on an improved specification that will authenticate users in response to this need for security and standardization in wireless LAN access. According to the guide for the 802.3 Ethernet system (and the 100 BASE-T Fast Ethernet segments which are part of that system), it is important to recognize that there are two LAN standards that can carry Ethernet frames at 100-Mbps. When the IEEE standardization committee met to begin work on a faster Ethernet system, two approaches were presented:

Spurgeon says the first approach was to speed up the original Ethernet system to 100-Mbps, while maintaining the original CSMA/CD medium access control mechanism. This approach was called "100BASE-T Fast Ethernet." The second approach presented to the LAN committee was to create an entirely new medium access control mechanism, one which would be based on "hubs" that controlled access to the medium using a "demand priority" mechanism. "This new access control system transports standard Ethernet frames, but it does it with a new medium access control mechanism. This system thus developed was further extended to "allow it to transport token ring frames as well. As a result, this approach is now called 100VG-AnyLAN. The IEEE decided to create standards for both approaches. The 100 BASE-T Fast Ethernet standard is part of the original 802.3 standard. The 100VG-AnyLAN system is standardized under a new number: IEEE 802.12 (Spurgeon, 1997, p. 17). The IEEE 802.11b working group created a set of protocols (called the IEEE 802.11b standard) for wireless, Ethernet local area networks in 2.4 gigahertz bandwidth space. The IEEE recommends that, "The rest of us English-language users think of IEEE 802.11b as a way to connect our computers and other gadgets to each other and to the Internet at very high speed without any cumbersome wiring -- or a significant price tag" (IEEE 802.11b Working Group 2000, p. 5).

Generally speaking, the benefits of installing a WLAN for many enterprises and individual consumers include:

Flexibility. In older buildings, re-wiring is not always an option due to the physical restraints of the building; also, existing space may not allow for additional cabling.

Ease of use. Installing a WLAN requires less physical work than installing or adding to a LAN. WLANs have also increased communication and encouraged spontaneity.

Growth capability. WLANs can expand in size and functionality; access points can be added to and upgraded. WLANs can start off small and grow in size and complexity as needed.

Mobility. WLANs allow users to move freely around the room, to wherever access points are in operation.

Cost. For general use, a WLAN does not save much money. The cost of network interface cards increases from about $67 for a standard card to about $180 for a wireless type; however, the overall investment in WLAN is less expensive that retrofitting cables into old buildings (Charp 2002).

Despite its clear benefits and advantages in terms of ease of use and cost effectiveness, there are certain risks associated with wireless networking. These risks are discussed further below.

Review of the Literature.

Security Risks Associated with IEEE WLAN 802.11. The applications for wireless communication technology continue to develop and expand; today, at least, the 802.11b is the standard of choice for wireless router communication used with network installation (Gonazles & Higby 2003). "The integrity of the transmitted data is a valid 2.4 GHz. At this wavelength medium, the propagation of wavelength maintains strong connectivity" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 30). The technology of WLANs actually dates back to the mid-1980s; during this period, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) freed up radio frequency (rf) to the industry. "Initially, this was viewed as a broadcast reception procedure and very little thought went to broadcast transmission" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 30). Early innovations in rf transmission at a local network (today called a WLAN) were fairly slow; however, in the last part of the 1990s, the IEEE introduced a new standard that would fuel growth in rf transmission technologies; the key standard was 802.11 which increased bandwidth enormously (Gonzales & Higby 2003).

According to Gonzales and Higby, IEEE first developed the 802.11 standard in 1997, thereby providing a base for WLANs. It was the goal of the IEEE at this time to design a standard that would support Ethernet networks used for medium-range and higher data rate applications. This concept was immediately adapted to deliver a standard for mobile and portable stations, and continued improvements included designing 802.11a, which provides high-speed connectivity to WLANs that operate on the 5 GHz band and support speeds up to 54 Mbps have taken place; the application of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) has allowed 802.11a to deliver such high speeds (Gonzales & Higby 2003).

In 1999, the IEEE promulgated another standard, known as 802.11b. This newer standard operated in an unlicensed area on the 2.4-2.8 GHz band, transmitted in direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), and supported up to 11 Mbps. The IEEE 802.11b is the dominant standard for current WLAN systems today because it can deliver sufficient speeds for the majority of applications used today. "Unfortunately, due to 802.11b's popularity, the standard has been unintentionally exposed to many security weaknesses. These issues are now a high-priority and are being addressed by several research-and-development teams" (emphasis added) (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 31).

Other IEEE research standards currently under development include 802.1x, 802.11g, and 802.11i. All of these initiatives focus on the identified security issues and faster transmission rates being brought to bear on the technology. The first, 802.1x was a port-level access control protocol that provided a security framework for Ethernet LANs and WLANs under the IEEE standard. The 802.1x standard provided a framework that supported stronger user authentication as well as a centralized security management model that included a client machine, an authenticator, and a Layer 2 device that provides a physical port to the network, an access point, or a switch. "802.1x supports an important part of network access by verifying user credentials and providing key management. Several authentication methods have included a server or database service for user authentication including remote authentication dial-in user service (RADIUS), Microsoft's Active Directory, Windows NT Domains and Trusts, and an LDAP directory" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 31). Standard 802.11i was specifically designed to address the identified security concerns involving WLANs; however, this initiative remains in the early development phase; Gonazeles and Higby report that this standard addresses wired equivalent privacy (WEP) vulnerabilities with improvements to 802.11 equipment.

All of this effort is not being driven in isolation from the marketplace. Consumers and businesses are confronted with a wide range of newer mobile devices such as laptops, cell phones, and personal digital assistants (PDAs) that have been the source for the recent increased demand for wireless mobility. These new devices provide users with the ability to take complete advantage of these innovative technologies and people are exploring even more ways to use these devices. The key advantage of wireless communication involves reduced costs as compared with the expense of wired installations. The recent laptop specifications of RAM, CPU speeds, and hard disk storage have also facilitated wireless communication. Today, a number of computer manufacturers are developing mobile devices that come complete with built-in capabilities of wireless connectivity that support 802.11b and 802.11g. The advantages to users included increased productivity during travel time. "The emergence of wireless broadband provides a good alternative to wired networks in terms of cost of implementation and feasibility of retrofits in situations involving inaccessible wiring. In many instances, wired infrastructure would prove quite impractical" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32). While wireless broadcasting does have some constraints, the technology continues to enjoy widespread popularity across the United States and other countries, such as Korea and Japan. The hardware required to establish a wireless infrastructure has been dropping in price and a number of companies are providing wire less routers, hubs, switches, and network adapters that support out-of-the-box functionality. For example, Gonzales and Higby point out that a competitive price for a wireless router with one wide area network port (WAN) and four CAT5 ports cost just $124. A short time ago, this product would have been sold for more than twice that amount and would likely have had less functionality. Furthermore, in its infrastructure mode, a maximum 2048 wireless nodes can be supported; in ad-hoc mode, the number decreases significantly to 256, due mostly to additional overhead and lower available bandwidth; nevertheless, the increasing demand for these innovative products has resulted in increased production and lower prices to consumers. "The wireless network interface card that supports 802.11b costs about $60 in the U.S." (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32). These authors suggest purchasing a card that supports 802.11g because of integrated compatibility with 802.11b and the benefit of increased bandwidth of 54 Mbps; however, compatibility concerns have recently emerged concerning roaming between wireless access points that include standards 802.11b and 802.11g (Gonzales & Higby 2003).

According to Gonazels and Higby, the "hot spot" is a most interesting phenomenon. "We have noticed that wavelength propagation is stronger in some areas than in others. A very strong wireless signal is called a hot spot. Sometimes, we cannot control the restrictions to wireless transmission/reception, but we can move our access point within the environment to find better reception" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 31). Industry consultant Steve Alexander reports that within a radius of 9-90 m (30-300 ft) from the hot spot's antenna, computers that are equipped with Wi-Fi circuit cards or chips could connect to the Internet without visible communications links. Two commonly used versions of Wi-Fi, 802.11b and 802.11g, enabled wireless transmission speeds of 11 million bits per second (bps) or 54 million bits. "Next-generation Wi-Fi standards being developed held out the promise of speeds of 200 million bps or more" (Alexander 2004, p. 7). A number of businesses, such as Starbucks coffee shops and McDonald's restaurants, have implemented charges for customers using their Wi-Fi services; other companies have elected to offer the service for free in order to attract customers. "Free service was practical because Wi-Fi equipment was relatively inexpensive and because many businesses already had high-speed connections to the Internet that also could handle the added Wi-Fi traffic" (Alexander 2004, p. 7). In 2004, Intel introduced its new Centrino microchips that provided laptops with built-in Wi-Fi capability; further, new Wi-Fi accessories for videogame consoles simplified playing games over the Internet by connecting game machines in the living room to a high-speed Internet connection in another part of the home (Alexander 2004).

Despite these distinct advantages, Wi-Fi remains in its early stages and for-pay hot spots were expected to generate no more than $20 million-$60 million in annual revenue in the U.S. this year. Nevertheless, some analysts have estimated that Wi-Fi revenue could reach $1 billion or more in the U.S. By 2008. Cellular telephone companies appeared to represent the most significant Wi-Fi providers; T-Mobile was identified as an early entrant that provided service in more than 2,500 bookstores and coffee shops. Conventional wired telephone companies viewed Wi-Fi as an extra service they could use to keep digital subscriber line (DSL) customers from taking advantage of new innovations in cable modems operating over cable TV networks. For instance, Alexander points out that Verizon Communications, the largest U.S. local telephone company, continued to add hot spots in parts of New York City. "It offered free use of the hot spots to customers of its wired DSL service" (Alexander 2004, p. 8). As the medium gained acceptance and increased use, Wi-Fi also created new security problems for the consumers who were not prepared for the new environment. "People using public hot spots might have their e-mail communications intercepted by others, and home and business owners of Wi-Fi networks did not always know they should encrypt their network traffic to safeguard it from passersby with laptop computers" (Alexander 2004, p. 8). Furthermore, skilled hackers are sometimes able to intercept data, user names, and passwords, as well as pirate free time on the Internet through Wi-Fi networks (Alexander 2004).

The original IEEE 802.11 standard specified eleven different channels (or frequencies) on which wireless communications were allowed to operate. In order to avoid excess noise that would adversely impact network performance, users can establish a number of low-range overlapping cells. These access points should be connected on the same network to allow users to roam effortlessly in the hot spot.

Because these channels are spread spectrum operating with 22 MHz of bandwidth, Gonzales and Higby suggest that the ideal installation would separate each radio or access point by five channels. "This method will produce zero overlap. A good combination would consist of 1, 6, 11, or 2, 7, 12. While this is the ideal solution, more and more areas (e.g., cities, apartments, and schools) are becoming saturated with wireless access, which makes this option less attractive" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 31).

In this regard, it is common for people using wireless to roam or search for the best reception; as a result, if users require extra transmission strength, they might only have to move a few feet in either direction to locate a greater density or concentration of data transmission (Gonzales & Higby 2003).

Today, wireless communication is the fastest-growing networking technology on the market. This newest form of communication has provided a wide range of new opportunities for businesses to increase their contacts with representatives on the road for home and school users to simplify their connectivity needs. In the midst of this explosive growth, though, the increased popularity of WLANs has also expanded the need to institute new security practices; there are a number of security procedures will enhance the level of privacy when deploying a WLAN (Gonzales & Higby 2003. Some of the basic techniques include:

Changing the default SSID;

Wired equivalent privacy (WEP);

Virtual private networks (VPNs),

Firewalls,

Media access control (MAC); and,

Remote access dial-up service (RADIUS) authentication and authorization (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32).

In addition, WEP encryption technology has allowed secure communication between a remote user and a wireless access point. "When configuring a wireless router, we strongly recommend activating WEP because most wireless routers, by default, will have this setting turned off. Recent exposures and vulnerabilities in the WEP algorithm has hackers smiling from ear to ear, but the time and effort it takes to crack the algorithm is definitely a deterrent" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 33). There are other security features being introduced that will help overcome some of the vulnerabilities identified to date as well. For instance, the implementation of VPNs will protect remote-access between users and corporate networks. According to Gonzales and Higby, the process is created by a secure virtual tunnel from the remote user's computer, through the user's access point, then onto the Internet, and finally to the network's servers and systems. "The remote computer uses an encryption scheme that enables safe passage for the data, with little to no chance of interception. The image of hiding or invisibility seems very attractive when discussing security" (emphasis added) (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32). Firewalls can hide a user's computer from unauthorized access and hardware and software tools available today provide the functionality of a firewall that can control the flow of data in and out of a wired or wireless network. "We recommend network address translation (NAT), an advanced firewall or gateway, when configuring a wireless router. It provides enhanced capabilities of a normal firewall" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32).

Media access control, or MAC, filtering is a component of the 802.11 standard that takes advantage of a unique number that is allocated by the manufacturer of the wireless router's network interface card. According to Gonzales and Higby, the MAC address filters out undesired access by accepting only selected addresses to the network. "MAC filtering is similar to call blocking on your telephone line, which blocks unwanted calls. While a laborious task on a large corporate network, MAC filtering should be used in setting up a home network" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 32). One constraint identified to date is the ability of a hacker to "spoof" the MAC address by intercepting the address and programming it and broadcasting it as its own (Gonzales & Higby 2003). In addition, remote access dial-up service, or RADIUS, has brought the functionality to use a username and password scheme to enable access by approved users to the network. "RADIUS has several different levels of authority control that provide many classes of access. One option gives blanket-type access to the Internet. Another gives permission to use the Internet and e-mail communication. The last account class option gives access to the Internet, e-mail, and secure servers" (Gonzales & Higby 2003, p. 33).

In a special report from 2003, R. Marion Bliss reported that in the 1960s, high-fidelity, or "hi-fi," became the standard for homes outfitted with the latest high-powered audio equipment available at the time. "Fidelity had to do with clear signals providing crisp music from the home stereo and turntable. Today, some home buyers and owners are interested in fidelity of a different sort" (Bliss 2003, p. F30. By using technology based on high-frequency two-way radio signals, perhaps 10% of American homeowners are already enjoying short-range data transmission through clear airwave signals called wireless fidelity - "wi-fi." The Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) worked to standardize the technology, which is called 802.11b or 802.11a (or 802.3, if it is referring to a network) (Bliss 2003). The new radio-based technology appears in a number of products, for which the Wi-Fi Alliance, formed in 1999, works to ensure compatibility. In home-based applications, IEEE 802.11b allows users to receive signals from a fixed-base station, or router, which is an external set-top box-type piece of equipment that has been installed near the home computer. "The fixed-base station then receives signals from either a home's cable modem or digital subscriber line (DSL). These signals travel invisibly through walls and people to nearby laptop or desktop computers equipped or adapted with a plug-in card" (Bliss 2003, p. F29). A number of new laptop and desktop computers are automatically set up for wireless applications; however, older models will need to be equipped with the plug-in cards to communicate with the hub, or base station. According to the Wi-Fi Alliance, wi-fi-equipped computers are able to receive signals from 80 feet to 350 feet from the hub; the signals employ the same or similar frequency used by cordless phones. The signals, though, are not impervious to interference. "Concrete, steel and masses of people have been known to weaken the signal" (Bliss 2003, p. F30). Some observers have cautioned that such signals may not be secure against intruders who might attempt to steal critical data such as Social Security or credit card numbers. Today, wi-fi is protected by what is known as secure encryption. When wi-fi equipment is installed, the user keys in a secure encryption code; this means that all computers on the wi-fi local area network, or LAN, can then communicate only with each other.

According to Charp (2002), "WLANs have been functioning in recent years using several standards. Recently two variations of standards are in use for implementing WLANs. The IEEE 802.11b, known as Wi-Fi, is the more mature standard, though it has a relatively slow transmission speed" (p. 12). The major weakness of the Wi-Fi standard is its security because it only provides very basic protection of the data being transmitted. Further, unlike direct line types of communications, wireless LANs (or "WLANs") inherently have several limitations that are unique to the medium; these restrictions include obstruction of line of sight space, number of users to be connected, and what materials were used in building construction. Clearly, not all office buildings are directly connected to fiber or other digital telecommunications sources and in many cities, existing conduits are full and new trenches are simply out of the question; nevertheless, carriers and their customers want broadband IP connectivity that is easily provided as well as being highly scalable and less expensive (Spurgeon 1997). Some American municipalities have tried to reject all new cell towers for IEEE 802.11b; however, this is not an option under the Telecommunications Act of 1996 because communities are obliged to deal with the problems of technology as well as its merits (Driscoll, 2002). While there is an ongoing scientific debate over the health risk from exposure to radio frequency radiation (RFR) emitted from wireless transmitters, the Federal Communications Commission established guidelines, based on Section 704 of the Telecommunications Act 1996, that categorically exempted a number of facilities from regulation aimed at reducing radio frequency exposure, including antennas more than 10 meters (32.8 feet) above ground level (Driscoll, 2002).

To this end, a number of companies are developing innovative solutions to this problem by exploiting developments in free space optics; for example, laser transceivers installed on rooftops or even in office windows can provide the transmission power needed for these applications today, and these systems can be installed and deployed in a single day. This type of free space optics is currently being used by one firm, Terabeam, to send signals through office windows via laser beams. While line of sight, atmospheric interference and security must still be considered, the free space optical will likely prove to have significant benefits for local network service providers in many urban environments (Wireless LANs 2002).

There are other constraints to wireless LAN installations beyond line of sight issues, though, including the numbers of users involved and the composition of the buildings in the immediate proximity.

According to Cohn (2001), "The key challenge to the enterprise is figuring out the coverage area and how many users each access point should get. You put an access point out there and have a wireless LAN card in your PC.... But you have to worry about high usage areas in large buildings and analyze the materials in the building" (Cohn 2001, p. 5). Other obstacles to effective wireless LAN coverage can include elevator shafts, concrete, and steel; however, there are a variety of testing procedures that technicians can use to determine the best location for signal strength in different parts of the office for the wireless LAN installation (Cohn 2001). This author cautions that wireless LAN users must be more careful with their data and recommends that companies employ new levels of encryption security if they choose the wireless route which extends even to internal email: "Things you didn't encrypt in the past you now need to encrypt. If you go wireless, you need to encrypt your internal e-mail. It would be like not having a firewall" (Cohn 2001, p. 8).

There are also some drawbacks to WLANs when compared to their hard-wired counterparts, at least for the present. According to Charp, "Wired networks for reliability and performance exceed the wireless network. Cabled networks operate at speeds well over 100 times faster than most wireless networks" (p. 12). Further, to date, more innovations have been made to hard-wired networks than to wireless networks; however, LANs are more difficult to configure, particularly when the need exists to drill through concrete walls to add network drops. Arguments for WLANs are most convincing when major renovation is required and the cost of construction is high. On the other hand, the cabled network is able to operate at speeds much faster than the wireless network. Faster processing, more memory, better displays and some degree of standardization have all been cited as fundamental advantages of LANs. "So, it seems both wireless and hard-wired technologies have their place... Though users often notice delays in network time as compared to a hard-wired LAN" (Charp 2002, p. 12).

Current and Future Trends. As noted above, the 802.11b is the standard of choice today for wireless router communication used with network installation. According to Gonzales and Higby (2003), "The value of a wireless system comes in part from its high degree of mobility and versatility, and mobility can be dramatically enhanced by the quick connectivity and operation that can come from a portable unit, smaller than a shoebox, called an access point" (p. 30). Today, a number of vendors such as D-Link, Linksys, and Intel are promoting increased use of wireless technology by cutting prices on their wireless LAN equipment. Furthermore, notebook computer vendors such as Apple, IBM, Dell, Compaq, and Gateway are all including a wireless interface as an option on many of their laptop models, thereby making it easier for employees to access a wireless LAN and more manufacturers are expected to follow suit in the near future (Cohn 2001, p. 4). Cohn notes that Cahners InStat Group has predicted that enterprise wireless LAN revenues will reach nearly $4.6 billion by the end of 2005. In addition, laptop manufacturers are also driving the demand for wireless services. According to Martin Dunsby, a global wireless consultant at Deloitte Consulting, "It comes down to bandwidth. Three or four years ago, people started rolling out 100-megabit-per-second for the desktop. They're moving to shared server centers, regionally and nationally, where a thin client can access them wirelessly" (Cohn 2001, p. 6). Dunsby's company already has five data centers that support 70,000 employees worldwide. In Atlanta, the company's employees can access email and knowledge-management databases through a single connection to a data center in Hermitage, Tennessee. Dunsby was highly pleased with the results of the IEEE 802.11b approach and said that, "Deploying a wireless network allowed us to be much more spontaneous in meetings and still have access to research" (2001, p. 7). A company does not necessarily have been large to reap the benefits of a wireless LAN system either, and even small offices are setting up wireless networks, and companies like Xircom, SOHOware, and Celestix are targeting the small office-home office market with wireless Ethernet access points and starter kits that sell for only a few hundred dollars (Cohn 2001). An increasing number of companies are offering wireless access to enterprise data from mobile devices. For example, Aether Systems, Wireless Knowledge, and Infowave Software. For mobile users, Quickoffice from Cutting Edge Software puts spreadsheet and word processing software on Palm devices (Cohn 2001).