Attachment theory, sensitive mothering, and psychosocial development across theoretical frameworks

Sensitive mothering: A theoretical overview

Although the nature vs. nurture controversy rages on, regarding the degree to which nurturing can influence childhood development, research does suggest that a particular parenting style is preferred: so-called 'sensitive mothering.' Sensitive mothering is defined as being "highly responsive and available" to a child's needs (Spinrad & Sifter 2011). Mothers who could pick up on their child's nonverbal signals "were more likely to have infants who developed more harmonious relationships with their mothers" (Spinrad & Sifter 2011). These children were also more likely to have positive social relationships with others. While the theory of sensitive mothering began in an era when women were assumed to be the primary caregivers of children, this childhood development theory can be helpful for teachers and other primary caregivers to study, as well as parents of both genders. The style is particularly congruent with the principles of Montessori education.

Attachment theory: Bowlby and Ainsworth

Childhood development theorist John Bowlby conducted pioneering research in the field of infant development and separation anxiety. He was the first to apply Freudian theories to biological research regarding infant development. "Bowlby proposed that 1-2-month-olds' unmistakable attachment behavior is made up of a number of component instinctual responses that have the function of binding the infant to the mother and the mother to the infant" (Bretherton 1992). Bowlby was the first to coin the phrase 'separation anxiety' and also to challenge Freud's notion of over-mothering as the primary source of neurosis. In fact, Bowlby countered that coldness and a failure to acknowledge the child's needs with supportive responses was more psychologically damaging in the long-term for the infant. The child's desire to be with the mother was normal, developmentally speaking, as was the mother's desire to comfort the child.

Three phases of separation response were observed to be manifested when the child was left by a parent, that of a protest (crying, and evident anxiety), despair (a sense of hopelessness regarding the fact that the mother world return), and then, upon the mother's return, denial or detachment as a defense mechanism. The infant communicated to the mother the child's lack of need as a way of repressing the previously-expressed anxiety (Bretherton 1992)

Drawing upon her colleague Bowlby's findings, Mary Ainsworth conducted clinical experiments to support Bowlby's conclusions and to add to his research. Ainsworth's research provided evidence as to what can occur when children's expressed needs, including the need for a parent, are ignored. "Mothers who…rated as highly sensitive, in contrast to other mothers who seemed imperceptive of the nuances of infant behavior" seemed to have infants who were more resilient and experienced less distress (Bretherton 1992). "Three infant attachment patterns were observed: Securely attached infants cried little and seemed content to explore in the presence of their mothers; insecurely attached infants cried frequently, even when held by their mothers, and explored little; and not-yet attached infants manifested no differential behavior to their mothers" (Bretherton 1992).

Ainsworth stated that the first category of child had experienced a secure enough attachment to their caregivers -- enough to interact with strangers comfortably. The second category of child, the anxious-resistant, insecure attached child "was anxious among strangers even when the caregiver is present and becomes distraught if the caregiver leaves. Instead of being happy when the trusted caregiver returns, the child is resentful and resistant to attention" (Mary Ainsworth: Noteworthy psychologist, 2010, Helping psychology). The third, disengaged "anxious-avoidant insecure attachment" child is unresponsive emotionally to both strangers and the parent (Mary Ainsworth: Noteworthy psychologist, 2010, Helping psychology). The second and third children's needs had not been acknowledged appropriately by their parents, and thus manifested anxiety or indifference to their parents and around others.

Bowlby and Ainsworth's theories are also supported by the work of developmental psychologist Erik Erikson. Erikson put forth his theory of developmental stages as a counterweight to what he saw as Freud's over-emphasis on sexual development. Rather than stressing the oedipal conflict and its role in determining human personality, Erickson instead defined the essential conflict of childhood as one of trust vs. mistrust. The child "needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertainty…to trust himself/herself, others, and the environment" (Erikson's developmental stages, 1990, University of Hawaii). A child with an insensitive parent who does not pick up on the infant's cues causes the child to feel anxious and mistrustful of the world. The child responds either by being overly anxious and clinging to the mother or, if rejected, by entirely shutting down and assuming that its needs will be ignored.

Montessori Method

The Montessori Method of childhood education supports the theory of the need for sensitive parenting according to its core principles of honoring the independence of the child, conducting observations of the child, following the child to better understand his or her needs, correcting the child, constructing a prepared environment to facilitate learning and making use of the child's absorbent mind to instill learning informally as well as formally (Montessori Theory, 2011, Daily Montessori).

The ideal Montessori educator is responsive to the child's needs, and by making the child feel secure, enables the child to explore his or her surroundings in a safe manner. An anxious child is uncertain of his or her needs and afraid to explore beyond the teacher's direction, while a detached child exhibits no curiosity at all. The Montessori Method offers support to alleviate a child's anxiety, yet is still responsive to the child's expressed needs, feelings, actions and wants.

For example, according to the core Montessori principle of independence, when children wish to perform tasks themselves, Montessori instructors are sensitized enough to the child's expression of needs that they allow the child to do so (Montessori Theory, 2011, Daily Montessori). This gives the child a sense of confidence and empowerment. A child who is capable of performing tasks but continually sees his or her parent insist upon doing or redoing his or work loses a sense of his or her own personal capabilities, which Maria Montessori felt was the birthright of every child.