Gender construction through cross-cultural initiation rites and rituals

¶ … Men are made, not born" encapsulates the principle that gender is socially constructed. Therefore, women are also made and not born. Gendered rituals and rites of passage inculcate the gender roles and norms in society. For example, Herdt's analysis of the gendered initiation rites in Papua New Guinea shows how superstition guides belief about gender. Moreover, a cross-cultural analysis reveals the arbitrariness of gender roles and norms. Gender is completely proscribed, as judgments are placed on children from the time they exist the womb until the moment they die. In "The Cultural Construction of Gender," the author shows how various rituals and rites of passage serve to define gender roles, norms, and personal identity, but that "the transition to womanhood is often part of a more subtle and continuous process of enculturation and socialization," (p. 160). Both men and women are "made, not born," but male control of rituals and rites of passage ensures that greater power and prestige are later conferred upon those labeled and designated as male.

While male dominance of public discourse would threaten to undermine the power of women to control the means, methods, and meanings of their being "made," there are some instances in which women can arbitrate their own identities. These situations are relatively rare, though. The qualities given to males in a society are usually more positive in tone and ultimate meaning than those given to females, which is why "throwing like a girl" and other derogatory comments are gendered. Yet progressive and evolving societies are consciously reconstructing gender norms and identities. As Gilmore points out in his analysis of machismo in Spain, and likewise with Santos's discussion of machismo in El Salvador, the very concept of "macho" is more complex than perhaps it once was or was once believed.

Part Two

1: Lynch

Lynch discusses the cross-cultural implications of the statement, "men are made, not born." Moreover, it is important that Lynch mentions intersex and other gender-defying categories that make gender binaries particularly problematic. Imposing gender on children inhibits their organic identity formation, but creates a society in which gender is a primary social category. Distinguishing between male and female immediately after birth allows for the stratification of society and the organization of labor into codified areas. Thus, in most societies, men entrust themselves with political power and designate the home as the woman's space. There is some kind of power in the domestic sphere, but these roles are arbitrary, especially given the fact that in a few cultures, men contribute much to the private sphere and women to the public.

2: Pena

Focusing on the issue of whether women are also "made, not born," Pena refers to the film "Monday Girls." Like most rites of passage, the rituals in the film denote whether a person has successfully embodied the values of "femaleness" in that society. As Pena points out, the women are "labeled" by a group of elders who determine if they have successfully reached womanhood as virgins. The rites in this society define gender through rigorous rites, just as men receive similar rites of passage in other cultures. The culture "makes" gender; it is not up to the individual to determine gender identity. Similarly, Pena mentions the topic of machismo as male gender construction. Concepts like "virility," "valor," and "virtue" are ascribed to men but men must work hard to embody these qualities in culturally acceptable ways or else be labeled as "less than a man."

4: Olmstead

Male circumcision is performed in many cultures, often close to birth as in the Jewish tradition. However, in the Massai culture the male circumcision ritual is more painful and there are deliberate constraints on how the male must comport himself during the ritual. As Olmstead points out, the same is not true for women who are forced to undergo the circumcision procedure in countries where this tradition is still practiced. The female circumcision ritual serves distinctly different functions from male circumcision. Whereas the male ritual "makes" the man, the female ritual "breaks" the woman into submission. She is forced to submit to her husband and is disallowed sexual pleasure, but the same is not true for the man, who proves his manliness by remaining strong through the circumcision ritual. Women are not expected to remain as "strong" and are allowed to cry, showing the different expectations and stereotypes of men and women.