Typologies and classification systems in research

Typologies

The objective of this work is to answer the question of: 'What are the major notions of the typological approach?' And to outline and discuss the relevance of at least two classic typologies used in the study of community. Secondly, this work will answer the question of 'What are the major notions of the ecological approach in the study of community?' And will outline and discuss the relevance of at least two examples of classical ecology used in the study of community.

TYPOLOGICAL APPROACH DEFINED typology "consists in grouping together objects or people with common or similar attributes in order to classify them by types. This approach voluntarily neglects secondary differences to enhance the main similarities. The aim of a typology is to propose a synthetic vision of phenomenon by reducing the diversity of objects of people concerning the phenomenon. The result is a clarification but not a simplification." (Herouard, 2006)

TWO CLASSIC TYPOLOGIES in STUDY of COMMUNITY

The work of Bell and Newby (1974) states that "Treating communities as types is the closet to the classical tradition of Tonnies. When dealing with communities we are dealing centrally with the rural-urban continuum, for all others have taken this as their starting-point either to present variation on it or to set themselves up against it. The typological approach to communities is also a theory of social change - the aim is not merely to classify communities, but to say something about the nature and direction of social processes." (Bell and Newby, 1974) Bell and Newby also relate that there are "vertical" and "horizontal" dimensions of the local social system - the study of nationally and locally-oriented groups." (1974) Bell and Newby relate that the tool of analysis for delineation and analysis of these groups is "the social network." (1974) it is noted that Mitchell and his colleagues "carefully distinguished between the structural characteristics and the content of networks..." (Bell and Newby, 1974) and notes as well that painstaking elaborations of the concepts concerned in net work analysis have supported these studies.

III. ECOLOGICAL APPROACH in the STUDY of COMMUNITY

The work of Paquette and Ryan entitled: "Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory" relates that the theory of Bronfenbrenner is one which view the child's development "within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment." (nd) This theory is one that defines the "complex 'layers' of environment, each having an effect on a child's development." (Paquette and Ryan,

As the factors in the child's environment interact with the child's biology which is maturing "his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers." (Pacquette and Ryan, nd) the following illustration labeled Figure 1 shows the theory of Bronfenbrenner relating to the ecological systems theory.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Source: Paquette and Ryan (nd)

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory contains the microsystem, the mesosystem and the exosystem. This theoretical framework is one that considers the impacts of factors within the microsystem which include the individual's body, behavior, and other such factors while the mesoystem is comprised by the school, the family, and religious factors. The exosystem is comprised by the factors of community, society, and culture while the macrosystem is comprised of global issues of community, society and culture.

One example of the ecological systems approach is illustrated in an approach reported in the work of Robyn Gould entitled: "An Ecological Approach to National Education Reform: Recommendations for the Reauthorization of No Child Left Behind" in which it is related that in order "...to fashion solutions that will improve education for all children. Specifically, the NCLB must accommodate the human dimension of education and the interdependent structures that influence student learning." (Gould, 2007) This work relates that in the beginning of the 1980s "on-going reports that youth in the United Sates were performing at lower levels in school than youth in other nations sparked a national focus on education. Policymakers and educators expressed concerns that student achievement was not 'high enough or widespread enough' to meet the demands of an increasingly competitive global economy. In response, Congress passed, in 2002, the most aggressive, federal education law ever passed, No Child Left Behind (NCLB)." (Gould, 2007)

The work of Gould relates that NCLB reform should be based on educational theory instead of market principles and states that "Opponents of NCLB are considering a long list of amendments to fine-tune the legislation. Yet no amount of fiddling will fix he problem unless Congress changes the underlying framework of the law. Rather than using market theory - which equates schools with service goods and students with customer - lawmakers should use an ecological framework, which reflects the complex relationships between institutions, families, communities and individuals." (Gould, 2007) the No Child Left Behind act must necessarily address "the human dimension of education and the interrelated structures that influence the success of our educational system." (Gould, 2007)

Gould relates that the manner in which an issue is defined "frames our inquiry and informs the solutions we employ to solve it. Defining education reform within an ecological framework would shift attention away from economic factors and towards the human side of schools, the interdependence of systems, and the conditions that lead to differential educational outcomes. This would expand our understanding of the issues that youths face in school." (Gould, 2007) the educational system is comprised of "a complex web of students, parents, educators and community members. The system is influenced by politics, economics, and social norms. At the heart of the system is a child whose success in the world depends on the child's immediate surroundings as well as the cultural, social and political attitudes that influence the child's environment daily." (Gould, 2007) Gould holds that the use of the ecological systems theory in education reform "suggests that schools cannot operate with the sole aim of promoting academic achievement in math and reading, because schools cannot accomplish these goals without considering other factors affecting individual achievement." (Gould, 2007)

Another example of the use of the ecological systems theory in the study of community is the study of language development within the community. The work of William Croft entitled: "Typology and Universals" states that "Language change emerges in language use, that is, in the child's acquisition of his or her grammar; but it is strictly limited by the innate language module. In the typological approach the relationship between language structure, use and change is more interactive. Language change emerges from language use among all members of the speech community." (2002) in order to understand the development of language skills within the community, it is necessary to consider all of the factors that impact language development. Just as noted in the work of Gould which has stated that it is impossible to promote learning in only a couple of areas since this cannot be accomplished without giving due consideration to other factors that affect the achievement of the individual, then too, it is impossible to attempt to understand the development of language skills in a community without giving due consideration to the overall factors that affect language development of the individual.