Violence on the Web Computer Games

¶ … Violence in Web-Based and Computer Games on Adolescents

Playing video and computer games is a treasured leisure activity among many young people today, and these young players frequently prefer violent games. Studies suggest that exposure to media violence may adversely affect young people's attitudes and behavior. Further, self-concept is a key indicator of core attitudes and coping abilities, and, for adolescents, the evolution of the sense of self is a fundamental developmental activity (Buchman & Funk, 1996). The average adolescent in the United States spends over 6 hours a day in front of some sort of video screen such as a television, computer, video games, the Internet and movies, and the total actually exceeds the amount of time children spent in school today (Smoots, 2003). In fact, while watching or playing video games, children in the United States will have witnessed around 200,000 violent acts and 16,000 murders on television alone by the age of 18 years (Smoots, 2003). It is little wonder, then, that critics point to such activities as being especially harmful for adolescents, and seek to either ban them outright or ensure appropriate controls are in place to prevent impressionable young people from having access to them in the first place. However, critics of such views point to First Amendment considerations and the need to maintain an open Internet environment that allows unrestricted access, with parents being responsible for monitoring what their children do in the home and online. Amid this debate, there remains the harsh reality that video games and television programming are becoming increasingly violent in nature, and children - especially boys - are being drawn to these games in increasing numbers. This paper examines the arguments in support of providing additional restrictions over such media, followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Background, Overview and Incidence. According to Lachlan, Smith and Tamborini (2003), video games are the latest of the most recent forms of mass media to come under criticism for violent and female-bashing content

Video game critics argue that games such as Mortal Kombat, Duke Nukem, and Doom are not only inherently violent, but that playing such games may be having a harmful effect on young players. In fact, U.S. Senator Joseph Lieberman (1998) stated, "these games... are part of a toxic culture of violence that is enveloping our children, that is helping to desensitize them and blur the lines between right and wrong, and encouraging some of the most vulnerable of them to commit violence" (p. 1). Indeed, playing violent video games has also been implicated as being a potential contributing factor in the recent schoolyard massacres at Columbine High and Westside Middle School (Flatin, 2000).

However, there have also been several generations of Americans who have grown up with television now, and most of them have seen their share of violence on TV. As a result, in the past, parents and educators were primarily concerned with the effects of violence in television programming on children; today, though, young people are spending more time playing video games than they are watching television. "For parents and educators concerned with children's exposure to violence, this is not necessarily good news" (Wagner, 2004, p. 16). Some parents may be left wondering what all of the fuss is about, since violence on television has not necessarily impacted their lives in any discernible fashion; however, the evolving media and tactile stimulation techniques being introducing in video gaming products have only been recently studied.

A survey by researchers at Michigan State University of young people in grades five through university level showed that all of these children are spending at least as much or even more of their time today playing video and Web-based games as they are watching television, and that males spend about twice as much time playing video games as girls do (Wagner, 2004). According to a study conducted by the Media Analysis Laboratory at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia, entitled "Video Game Culture: Leisure and Play Preferences of Teens," the video game industry has "already won 30% of the U.S. toy market, earning $8.8 billion in the U.S. alone - a share which is larger than the Hollywood box office gross ($5.2 billion) and 10 times the amount spent on the production of children's television" (Technology: Violence and Video Games, 1999, p. 173). The participants in the B.C. study ranged in age between 11 years old to 18 years old (but about 80% of them were between 13 and 15 years old).

According to the study, "Eighty percent of the teens said they played [games] at least occasionally, and the average amount of time spent gaming for the sample was five hours per week" (Technology: Violence and Video Games, 1999, p. 173). The survey also indicated that video games were overwhelmingly a male pastime. For example, boys reported spending fully twice as much time playing (six hours per week) as girls (less than three hours per week). In addition to gender differences, the study also identified significant differences between "heavy players" (who spent more than seven hours per week playing), and "light players" (who played for three hours or less). "One interesting variable defined by the researchers was 'displacement,' the giving up of various activities in order to play games" (Technology: Violence and Video Games, 1999, p. 173). According to this study, 21% of the respondents indicated that homework and chores were something they frequently gave up in order to play video games or watch television.

The report also pointed out that it was clear that for heavy players displacement was inordinately more common event than for light players. The respondents reported procrastinating on their homework and household chores (37%) and family activities (18%) far more often In addition, boys who spent the most time playing video games also reported the most TV viewing time; male heavy players watched on average 20 hours of television per week. Since heavy players were also those who spent at least seven hours a week playing video or computer games, the combined total from the television and video game playing was almost 30 hours per week, if not more (Technology: Violence and Video Games, 1999, p. 173). However, the violent content of those games, particularly those that are preferred by young male gamers, is of growing concern to many observers, including families, educators, and policymakers at all levels.

Another report recently released by the Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) showed that a majority of 2- to 18-year-old children in the United States have access to video game technology in their homes. Almost 75% of all of the children surveyed reported having at least one video game player such as a Sega system or Nintendo. In addition, 33% of the children in this age group reported having a video game system in their own room. The results of the Kaiser Family Foundation study also showed that 8- to 18-year-old boys spent 41 minutes per day playing video games compared to 12 minutes per day by girls in this age group. These results would suggest that many children not only have access to home gaming systems, but spend at least some time every day playing such interactive technology as well (Lachlan et al., 2003).

Despite recent studies that suggest video games may be one of the primary factors that are contributing to a high incidence of youth violence, there has been some inconsistencies in the evidence regarding the impact of violent video game play on feelings of hostility, and aggressive behavior. According to Ballard and Lineberger, some researchers have determined that participants tend to display more aggression, hostility, and anger after playing more violent video games. Others have found a martial arts game elicits increased levels of aggression among boys than a motorcycle racing game. The results of these studies suggest that there is an increased incidence of object, physical, and verbal aggression following violent video game play. In a previous study, Ballard examined the effect of the level of video game violence. This study showed that male college students displayed more hostility and greater cardiovascular reactivity after playing Mortal Kombat than after playing a nonviolent control game. In addition, these researchers determined that players tended to display significantly greater hostility and cardiovascular reactivity after playing a more violent version of Mortal Kombat (the special effect of gushing blood was added to the basic fighting game) than after playing the same game without the added special effect. "This indicates that level of game violence, and not simply game violence per se, is important to examine" (1999, p. 544). By contrast, other studies have not identified any increase in hostile or aggressive affect as a result of the level of video game violence; however, instead of employing one violent video game with increasing levels of violence, these studies used two conceptually different video games that were assumed to represent varying degrees of violence (Ballard & Lineberger, 1999).

Ballard and Lineberger note that the lack of comparable controls in game type, graphics, and sound that was provided by using more than one game to examine the result of level of violence may have influenced the results of that study. The results of other studies have also been inconsistent concerning whether or not violent video game play adversely affects juvenile and adolescent behaviors. For instance, some studies have suggested that violent video game play tends to increase children's overt aggressive behavior compared to nonviolent video game play. A few of the studies found that aggressive play, but not physically aggressive behaviors, tended to increase after children played violent video games (aggressive play and serious aggression were generally considered different constructs, with different intent and sequela) (Ballard & Lineberger, 1999).

Still other studies showed that girls, but not boys, were more likely to play with aggressive toys following violent video game play. Likewise, children who played a jungle-themed game were more likely to play with a jungle toy, while those who had played a karate game displayed more mock aggression (e.g., modeling karate techniques) in their real life play, but the children in this study did not exhibit any increases in serious aggression. Notwithstanding the few exceptions noted above, there is a growing body of experimental research that provides reason to believe there is a causal link between playing violent video games and aggressive thoughts, interpretations, and/or behaviors (Lachlan et al., 2003). Citing the results of two recent meta-analyses, Lachlan and his colleagues report that playing violent video games was significantly and positively associated with aggressive behavior in the populations studied. In response, researchers have introduced the General Affective Aggression Model (GAAM) to help explain how playing violent video games contributes to short- and long-term aggression (Anderson & Dill, 2000). According to this theoretical view, game playing involving violent activities can have a short-term impact on aggression by increasing arousal as well as the availability of aggressive thoughts and hostile feelings. "Through repeated playing of video games, violent scripts for social problem solving are reinforced, over-learned, and thus become automatized, resulting in biased perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about aggression. The theory also posits that the effects of violent video games may be heightened for the characteristically aggressive" (Lachlan et al., 2003).

A fundamental constraint of the research to date, however, is just how much the genre has changed, even in recent months, making timely comparisons and analyses even more difficult still. New games are being introduced by the truckload, and busy parents will probably not have the time to investigate each and every title that their children bring home. In the past, parents were able to provide some level of control over television viewing behaviors because there was only one or two televisions in the home, and everyone was watching the same thing. However, today, things are much different and not only are there likely to be several televisions in an American home, there are probably at least one or two computers with Internet access as well. Adding to the dilemma (from the parents' perspective) and to the delight (from the young players) is the manner in which these new video games are being specifically targeted at young players, especially boys.

Differences between Violence in Television Programming and Video Games. There is a fundamental difference in the quality and characteristics of the violence and gender socialization behaviors being presented in these two different media today. A recent study headed by psychologist Craig A. Anderson of Iowa State University suggests that video game activities are highly interactive whereas television viewing is passive in nature; consequently, the risk may be higher that the time spent engaged with violent video games could result in violent behavior. Funk and Buchman (1996) note that, "As with television, playing video and computer games provides opportunities for observational learning. In addition to the relatively passive influence of watching television, playing electronic games adds an active dimension that may intensify the impact of game playing" (p. 20). The majority of such video games make the player actively participate in developing the game scenario; however, players are also routinely rewarded for identifying and selecting the appropriate strategies that are built in by the game designer (Buchman & Funk, 1996).

According to Anderson, "The impact of exposure to violent video games has not been studied as extensively as the impact of exposure to TV or movie violence. However, on the whole, the results reported for video games to date are very similar to those obtained in the investigations of TV and movie violence" (cited in Wagner, 2004, p. 16). The adverse effects of violent game playing are further exacerbated by factors such as physiological arousal and physically aggressive behavior, including hitting, kicking, and pulling clothes or hair. Research to date has also identified a reduction in helpful behavior among adolescents who are exposed to violent video games (Wagner, 2004).

For those who have grown up with violent television programming, these concerns may be hard to understand. After all, they watched violence in cartoons and did not apply that same rationale to real-world settings. None of them likely picked up a large mallet and smacked a cat in the head, for example, as a result of watching similar activities in cartoons, so what is the big deal with video games and Web-based games anyway?

According to Tracy L. Dietz (1998), "It is through the process of socialization that boys and girls are encouraged to adopt and develop certain personality traits that are often referred to as masculine and feminine. These personality traits, then, have an impact upon the roles that individuals assume" (p. 425). The adverse impact of inappropriate television programs and advertisements upon the gender role expectations of both women and men has been the focus of much attention; however, as the popularity and accessibility of video games continues to increase, the question of the effect of the portrayal of women in video games upon gender role expectations as well as upon the use of violence continues to increase as well (Dietz, 1998). As Gamson et al. (1992) pointed out, "a wide variety of media messages can act as teachers of values, ideologies, and beliefs and... can provide images for interpreting the world whether or not the designers are conscious of this intent." (p. 374). No one would likely argue that males and females perceive the world around them in different ways, but these differences tend to be ameliorated through life experiences, social interactions and adult relationships. However, young players do not have the benefit of this worldly experience, and run a high risk of forming inappropriate values and views based on the pervasive messages being communicated by these new gaming forms.

Citing the results of a Michigan State survey, Wagner (2004) reports that male players tend to prefer action-oriented video games involving shooting, fighting, sports, action adventure, fantasy role-playing, and strategy. By contrast, female players tend to prefer classic board games, trivia quizzes, puzzles, and arcade games. On the plus side, video gaming tends to engage young players interests and gets them actively involved with technologies and opens up opportunities in higher-paying technology-based careers, according to communications professor Bradley Greenberg of Michigan State. "It is believed that these opportunities accrue to boys because they spend more time working with electronic games and computers," Greenberg adds. "If girls become more involved with technology at an early age, it is likely that the interest in technology will continue into the work world" (Wagner, 2004, p. 16). Should female players become more actively involved in technology fields (including game development), they may create less-violent games that promote cooperative behaviors rather than aggressive ones, and the gender roles that are exemplified will be more accurate (Wagner, 2004).

Educators and parents are not the only ones concerned, and pediatricians are increasingly warning the public about the dangers involved in such video games as well. According to Joel Steinberg, professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, "Be wary of the social-emotional risks of certain toys. Many send a dangerous message that could lead to destructive behavior. Parents should be very careful in selecting toys that may encourage [aggressive] behaviors, such as toy guns, knives, bow and arrows, or computer games and violent videos" (Certain Toys Trigger Aggression, 2003, p. 7).

These warnings are based on the disconnection young people may experience when they become involved in artificial substitutes for real-world experiences. These artificial substitutes provide for real alternatives, many of them violent, simply do not exist in the real world, or if they do, they inevitably lead to disaster in the form of school shootings, an increased incidence of domestic violence, higher dropout rates and a host of other social ills. According to Steinberg, "Young children who play violent video games are not participating in real-life experiences. If they run into a roadblock on a computer game, they may destroy it, and that is not appropriate in real life" (2003, p. 7). Nevertheless, the medium is pervasive and is not going anywhere soon. For instance, video games are in 80% of U.S. homes with children; they generated $6 billion in 2000 and $11 billion by 2003. "All indications are that the industry will continue to grow at a healthy clip" (Wagner, 2004, p. 16). Regrettably, violent programming in video games and television programming has been shown to be highly popular with young people, and the stakes are high for game manufacturers and television producers.

Young people today have more disposable income than ever to spend on such games, and savvy marketers have certainly taken notice. "The emerging market is for games designed more with girls in mind that engage them for longer periods of time and force them to investigate more the technology behind the games. The next frontier involves transferring videogame technology to educational settings and using the young people's fascination with the games to involve them more with innovative teaching technologies" (Wagner, 2004, p. 17). Until this level of integration is accomplished though, additional awareness is required concerning the adverse impact of violent games on young people's behavior (Wagner, 2004).

Adolescents learn by observation and are particularly susceptible to such fictionalized acts of violence, and these effects include verbal and physical aggression, fear, mistrust and decreased sensitivity to violence in real life (Smoots, 2003). According to Greenfield et al. (2000), even very young children as well as adolescents are spending increasing amounts of time using home computers to play multiuser games and to communicate with others through the Internet.

Evolution of Video Game Content and Regulation. Violence in the media has been of growing concern to social scientists, parents, and educators for decades. According to Ballard and Lineberger (1999), "As media violence continues to escalate, so do concerns over the impact of such violence on the behavior of adolescents and youth. In terms of video games, there has been an increase in the violence and brutality of the games and increasingly realistic graphics and sound that yield blood-gushing, bone-crunching special effects" (p. 541). The original computers games, such as Pong, were overwhelmingly nonviolent and could hardly have been the source of concern in this regard; however, aggressive behaviors and violent activities were introduced into the second generation of computer games with Breakout, a game that involved destruction; however, there was no human aggression involved at this point. Nevertheless, the trend was clear and by the next generation, the games that became popular, such as The Empire Strikes Back, involved human aggressive behaviors and became more personal as well. Newer games such as Mortal Kombat featured hand-to-hand combat with bloody and gruesome endings. "Violence continues to reign in the current generation of action games that include titles such as Doom, Duke Nukem, Mace, Hexen II, Kingpin, and Mortal Kombat II" (Greenfield et al. 2000, p. 123). While these titles sound bloody and gruesome (and they are), new innovations in technology has created additional sources of concern for observers.

The introduction of yet a more sophisticated fourth generation of games continues today and these in particular are forcing even proponents of the genre to reconsider the need for regulation of content. These new games, such as Grand Theft Auto (I and II), involve violent and sexual behaviors directed at women, beyond the highly larcenous activities that are a fundamental part of the gaming experience (pers. obs.). According to Ballard and Lineberger, "Newer games are often played from a 'first person shooter' perspective; players kill video characters directly rather than via another character" (p. 543). With the introduction of the Sony PlayStation analog controllers and "reality vests," young players are now able to "feel the victim's death struggle" (Ballard & Lineberger, 1999, p. 544). Furthermore, during game play, these new analog devices twitch and vibrate when aggressive techniques are employed on the screen, adding to the feedback sensory loop and reinforcing the experience in the minds of young players. "This tactile stimulation enhances the sensory experience of video game play, further differentiating it from more passive audiovisual media, such as television" (Ballard & Lineberger, 1999, p. 544).

As a result of increasing demands by parent and consumer advocacy groups, computer games have carried the ratings of the Entertainment Software Ratings Board (ESRB) since 1994 (Greenfield et al., 2000). The ESRB ratings of age appropriateness (for instance, "early childhood," "teen," or "mature") are featured on the front of the computer game box; on the back of the box, the ESRB provides appropriate descriptors of game content in various areas of concern, such as violence, language, sex, and gaming to help parents monitor the appropriateness of the product for their children (Greenfield et al., 2000).