Who\'s Controlling Our Emotions Emotional Literacy as a Mechanism for Social Control?

¶ … CONTROLLING OUR EMOTIONS?

EMOTIONAL LITERACY:

MECHANISM FOR SOCIAL CONTROL?

At the core of becoming an activist educator

Is identifying the regimes of truth that govern us the ideas that govern how we think, act and feel as educators because it is within regimes of truth that inequity is produced and reproduced. (MacNaughton 2005, 20)

Disorder, addictions, vulnerability and dysfunction...."

Disorder, addictions, vulnerability and dysfunction...." These terns, according to Nolan (1998; Furedi 2003; cited by Ecclestone N.d., 135), denote a therapeutic ethos prevalent in American culture that some consider to be seeping into British media, popular culture and politics. Currently, in England, "Personalised learning," according to Ecclestone (2005, 456), includes an increasing number of initiatives, which constitute a powerful discourse to respond to varied, frequently contradictory public, political and professional concerns relating to a person's emotional needs. Her article debates critical policy research and evaluates the subtle ways policy initiatives strive to develop "emotional well-being and encourage emotional engagement with public services resonate with images of the 'diminished self' emerging in broader cultural discourses." An expansive therapeutic ethos blurring differences between welfare and education, is also taking hold in Britain, Ecclestone (N.d., 135) points out. This process constitutes part of the problem, known as social control, that this researcher addresses in this study. In subtle ways, it includes "the language, codes and symbols of therapy change our idea of what it means to be human." Nolan, cited by Ecclestone (N.d, 135) contends that Rogerian self notions, usually positive, optimistic with a natural disposition to learn, improve and grow, currently too often give way to a less positive, dysfunctional perception of self and accepting weakness caused by "being only human."

Discourses systematise and frame how an individual thinks, feels, understands, and practices in particular areas of their lives, Foucault (1972; cited by MacNaughton, 2005, 20) purports. "A discourse of the child systematises and frames how early childhood educators think, feel, understand and practise being, for instance, an early childhood educator in an early childhood programme" (MacNaughton, 2005, 20). Those who follow Foucault, MacNaughton (2005, 20) argues, cannot strip politics from truth, as truth itself is a political fiction. A contrary contention, however, noted in this study's introductory quote challenges educators to identify "the regimes of truth that govern us...."

As it also attempts to identify a number of "regimes of truth that govern us..." (MacNaughton, 2005, p 20), this small-scale theoretical research project purports to investigate and aims to determine to what extent the introduction of emotional literacy into the field of education constitutes a form of social control. During the process, this theoretical research also examine a number of components constituting and contributing to concepts relating to emotional literacy.

Hypothesis When the New Labour Government seizes the concept of emotional literacy as a solution to a majority of societies' ills and as a means to reduce educational failure, then various discourses emerge in education, stressing the importance of developing the social and emotional skills of young people.

Objective 1 Using discourse analysis, define emotional literacy and demonstrate how this concept and its practices have been developed and constructed as a concrete reality.

Objective 2 Explore the extent the introduction of emotional literacy in school constitutes a form of social control. As it presents a myriad of published information on the topic of emotional literacy by accredited scholars and researchers, the next section of this study, the literature review, notes the pros and cons of the New Labour Government attempting to utilize emotional literacy to solve societal ills and reduce educational failure. The literature review also proposes to convey a relevant sampling of knowledge and ideas previously established on emotional literacy, as well as, accompanying strengths and weaknesses, as it addresses the contention that emotional literacy constitutes a mechanism for social control.

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Most frighteningly, in distilling this complex entity (emotional intelligence) into a single quality, might we not some day soon be reading a book touting the advantages of an emotional elite and the deterioration brought to our society by the emotional underclass (Matthews et al., 2002, quoted by Stobart; cited by Ecclestone 2005, 467).

Considering Emotional Intelligence

Emotional aspects of learning and experience and taking account of students' needs are important, Ecclestone (2005, 467) contends. Her article does not suggest "psychological insights into the relationship between self-concept, motivation and achievement are not significant. Nor does it reject a need to address the emotional problems of a minority of students or dismiss the usefulness of therapeutic interventions in certain contexts (Ibid)." Ecclestone (2005, 467), albeit argues that her stance calls for resistance to normalising therapeutic interventions regarding emotional intelligence, self-esteem, emotional literacy and emotional well-being. According to Ecclestone (2005, 467) normalising therapeutic interventions is frightening and need to be resisted as it supports diminising images of human potential and resilience. This literature review chapter, as noted in the previous chapter, presents a sampling of relevant published information on emotional literacy (including accompanying strengths and weaknesses) by accredited scholars and researchers. It also relates numerous pros and cons of the New Labour Government attempting to utilize emotional literacy to solve societal ills and reduce educational failure as it strives to fill stated objectives and determine the validity of this study's hypothesis.

Emotional Intelligence, Per Se

Emotional Intelligence (EI), Brackett and Salovey (2006) purport, refers to "the mental processes involved in the recognition, use, understanding, and management of one's own and others' emotional states to solve problems and regulate behavior (Mayer & Salovey 1997; Salovey & Mayer 1990, cited by Brackett and Salovey 2006). Rather than being grounded in personality attributes, these authors perceive EI to be ability or competency-based (Saarni, 1999, cited by Brackett and Salovey 2006). "Emotional intelligence from this tradition refers to an individual's capacity to reason about emotions and to process emotional information in order to enhance cognitive process." (Stewart-Brow and Edmunds 2003, 3) perceive emotional intelligence as the "ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotion; the ability to understand emotions and use emotional knowledge; the ability to access and/or generate feelings which facilitate thought (creativity), and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Salovey and Sluyter 1997 10, cited by Stewart-Brow and Edmunds 2003, 3).

Stewart-Brown and Edmunds (2003, 3) report researchers and government officials currently display increasing interest in the assessment of emotional and social competence in schools and early years' settings. "Many instruments are available which cover some aspect of these concepts. Several instruments combine assessment of emotional, social and academic competencies" (Stewart-Brown and Edmunds 2003, 3).

Emotional Competence

Debate envelops the term "emotional competence," particularly regarding its relationship to emotional literacy and emotional intelligence. Stewart-Brow and Edmunds (2003, 3) adopt Elias' definition of EI: "the ability to understand, manage and express the social and emotional aspects of one's life in ways that enable the successful management of life tasks such as learning, forming relationships, solving everyday problems, and adapting to the complex demands of growth and development' (Elias et al., 1997, cited by Stewart-Brow and Edmunds 2003, 3)

IQ and EI

In 1937, Robert Thorndike wrote about social intelligence. David Wechsler defined intelligence to be "the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" (Wechsler 1958, p.7; cited by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008). In 1983, Howard Gardner started writing about multiple intelligence and purported that intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences, as well as, intelligence generally measured by IQ and similar methods are likewise significant. In 1990, Salovey and Mayer created the term "emotional intelligence"; identifying EI to be "a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor own and other feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking and action" (Salovey and Mayer 1990; cited by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008).

IQ, some scientists argue, in and of itself, by itself does not accurately predict job performance Hunter and Hunter (1984, cited by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008). At the most, IQ reportedly accounts for approximately 25% of the variance. Sternberg (1996, by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008), albeit, stress that because studies vary, 10% may constitute a more realistic estimate.

IQ, however, may measure as low as four percent of the variance in some studies. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004, cited by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008) found, after examining the con-elation and predictive validity of EI, that when EI is compared to IQ or general mental ability, IQ more effectively predicts work and academic performance. Regarding whether a person will become a "star performer" (in the top ten percent, however such performance is appropriately assessed) within that role, or be an outstanding leader, IQ may be a less powerful predictor than emotional intelligence (Goleman 1998, 2001, 2002, cited by Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Perceiving Emotion

The first branch of El is defined as the ability to perceive and identify emotions in oneself and others, as well as in other stimuli including people's voices, stories, music, and works of art (e.g., Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Nowicki & Mitchell, 1998; Scherer, Banse, & Wallbott, 2001). When focused on the self, this dimension is related to greater emotional awareness (Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, & Zeitlin, 1990), lower alexithymia (Apfel & Sifneos, 1979), and less ambivalence about emotional expressivity (King, 1998; King & Emmons, 1990). When focused on other people, this dimension encompasses what is meant by affect sensitivity (Campbell, Kagan, & Krathwohl, 1971), affect-receiving ability (Buck, 1976) and nonverbal sensitivity (Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Archer, 1979).

Use of emotion to facilitate thought

The second branch of El concerns the ability to use emotions to focus attention and to think more rationally, logically, and creatively. Using emotions may require the ability to harness feelings that assist in certain cognitive enterprises such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and interpersonal communication. Emotions can create diverse mental sets that prove more and less adaptive for various kinds of reasoning tasks (Isen, 1987; Palfai & Salovey, 1993; Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1996). For example, some emotions may be more useful in stimulating creative thought (Isen & Daubman, 1984; Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987) and there may be a feedback loopwherein some people are especially creative in their experiences of emotion (Averill, 1999, 2000; Averill & Nunley, 1992).

Understanding emotion

The third branch of EI, understanding emotions, involves a fair amount of language and propositional thought to reflect the capacity to analyze emotions. It includes an understanding of the emotional lexicon and the manner in which emotions combine, progress, and transition from one to the other. Individuals who are skilled at understanding emotions have a particularly rich feelings vocabulary and appreciate the relationships among terms describing different feeling states. They may be especially sensitive to the manner in which emotion words are arranged as fuzzy sets organized around emotional prototypes (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988), and adept at identifying the core meaning or themes behind various emotional experiences (Lazarus, 1991).

Managing emotion

The ability to regulate moods and emotions in oneself and in other people constitutes the fourth branch of El. When managing one's own feelings, people must be able to monitor, discriminate, and label their feelings accurately, believe that they can improve or otherwise modify these feelings, employ strategies that will alter their feelings, and assess the effectiveness of these strategies. Several investigators have identified clear individual differences in at least some people's perceived self-efficacy with respect to this ability (Catanzaro & Greenwood, 1994; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). Some people are also more or less effective in helping others to mange their emotions. For example, some individuals always know the right thing to say or do to cheer up their best friend, to motivate a colleague at work, or to inspire others, whereas other individuals Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).are less capable of effecting these outcomes (e.g., Wasielewski, 1985, cited by Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Goleman stresses that IQ and EI are separate competencies, yet do not oppose each other. Individuals with high IQ but low El are reportedly, comparatively rare. A correlation between IQ and some aspects of EI include:

Pure) High-IQ male is typified - no surprise - by a wide range of intellectual interest and abilities. He is ambitious and productive, predictable and dogged, and untroubled by concerns about himself. He also tends to be critical and condescending, fastidious and inhibited, uneasy with sexuality and sensual experience, unexpressive and detached, and emotionally bland and cold.

Pure) High-EI male is socially poised, outgoing and cheerful, not prone to fearfulness or worried rumination. He has a notable capacity for commitment to people or causes, for taking responsibility, and for having an ethical outlook; he is sympathetic and caring in his relationships. His emotional life is rich, but appropriate; he is comfortable with himself, others, and the sodal universe he lives in.

Pure) High-IQ female has the expected intellectual confidence, is fluent in expressing her thoughts, values intellectual matters, and has a wide range of intellectual and aesthetic interests. She tends to be introspective, prone to anxiety, rumination, and guilt, and hesitates to express her anger openly.

Pure) High-EI female tend to be assertive and expresses her feelings directly, and feels positive about herself; life holds meaning for her. She is outgoing and gregarious, and expresses her feelings appropriately; she adapts well to stress. Her social poise lets her easily reach out to new people; she is comfortable enough with herself to be playful, spontaneous, and open to sensual experience. She rarely feels guilty, or sinks into rumination (Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Michael Foucault

Foucault, whose ideas on relationships that exist between power, discipline, knowledge and human bodies are considered radical, claimed that "truth does not exist" (MacNaughton 2005, 5) but that truth "is linked in circular relations with systems of power which produce and sustain it, and to effects of power which it induces and which extend it." Foucault's "radical" ideas of "disciplinary power" or "docile bodes" and "power/knowledge" can seldom be found in mainstream early childhood text, MacNaughton (2005, 5) reports. Foucault, albeit, purports that child development or early childhood curriculum constitutes fiction created "through 'truth games' that express the politics of knowledge of the time and place" (Foucault, 1997, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 5).

Michael Foucault, considered one of the 20th century's influential thinkers, consistently challenged ways individuals think about "the police, schooling, welfare organizations, gay rights and care of the mentally ill. A number of diverse theories, including Marxism, phenomenology, structuralism and psychoanalytic theories of Friedrich Nietzche and Immanuel Kant contributed to Foucault's perceptions (MacNaughton 2005, 4).

A major part of work Foucault completed examines the relationships between knowledge, truth and power, along with how these relationships affect individuals and the institutions individuals create. Foucault's work, MacNaughton (2005, 5) suggests, incites educators to reconsider and deepen their understanding of equity, along with considering possibilities of equity "by radicalising their understandings of power and knowledge in early childhood institutions."

Consequently, Foucault's radicalisation serves activism, as educators discover and/or develop new ways to act for equity. (MacNaughton 2005, 5).

During her research on early childhood curriculum Sally Barnes, a kindergarten teacher and Director in South Australia, reports, she was drawn to Foucault's work. She particularly appreciates concepts Foucault purports such as "disciplinary power," "docile bodies" and "power/knowledge" (MacNaughton, 2005, 14-15). Barnes contends that these concepts helped her reconsider spaces known as "kindergarten" and things that occur during spaces. Barnes notes that, due to Foucault's belief in productive power, her understanding deepened regarding the bureaucracy in work environments (MacNaughton 2005, 14-15). Foucault argues that "knowledge and truth are tied up with the way in which power is exercised in our age...and are themselves caught up in power struggles... No knowledge is true knowledge, free from ideology, he purports.

Instead, Foucault claims, all knowledge is "culturally prejudiced (MacNaughton 2005, 22-23), and...therefore partial, situated and local." Institutions produce and sanction "truths," Foucault (cited by MacNaughton (2005, p 20) argues, that govern normal and desirable ways an individual is to think, feel and act (MacNaughton 2005, 29-30). A set of truths within a given field, or "regime of truth," according to Foucault, generates an authoritative consensus "about what needs to be done in that field and how it should be done" (Gore, 1993, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 30).

From Foucault's work, Gore (1998, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 30-31). identified the following five "micropractices of power." These micropractices maybe utilized "to analyze how an individual's daily practices and bring to life a regime of truth in a specific field, such as early childhood studies" (MacNaughton 2005, 30).

Surveillance: being - or expecting to be - closely observed and supervised in and through reference to particular truths.

Normalisation: comparing, invoking, requiring, are conforming to a standard that expresses a particular truths about, for example the developing child.

Exclusion: using truths to establish the boundaries over what is normal, to include or exclude particular ways of being as desirable on desirable and, in doing so, to define pathology..

Classification: using truths to differentiate between groups or individuals.

Distribution: using specific one truths to decide how to arrange and right people in space one.

Individualization: Using truths to separate individuals.

Totalisation: using truths to produce a will to confirm. (Regulation: using specific truths to control ways of thinking and being by invoking rules and limiting behaviours - often through sanctions of rewards Gore, 1998, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 31).

According to Foucault, truth constitutes an "art of government" (Gore, 1993, 56, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 32). He understood "government," in a sense, as "techniques and procedures for directing human behaviour" (Foucault in translation in Rainbow 1994/1997, 81, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 31). As one truth dominates over another, according to Foucault (1977c, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 36), "as one truth accumulates official sanction, others become marginalised and/or silenced."

According to Foucault, this process denotes a "violence" that produces homogeneity and marginalises diversity." (Foucault, 1977c, cited by MacNaughton 2005, 36).

Concrete Concept

Measuring Emotional Intelligence with the MSCEIT contributes to the contention of Emotional Intelligence as a concrete component in education. The fact that, as Stewart-Brown and Edmunds (2003) find, along with ability to measure academic competencies, instruments are available to measure emotional competence, contributes to the contention that emotional literacy is considered a concrete concept.

Instruments for Measuring Emotional Intelligence The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), an ability-based test, measures the four branches of the EI model of Mayer and Salovey. "MSCEIT was developed from an intelligence-testing tradition formed by the emerging scientific understanding of emotions and their function and from the first published ability measure specifically intended to assess emotional intelligence, namely Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2008)." To complete MSCEIT's 141 items and requires 30-45 minutes. MSCEIT presents 15 main scores: Total EI score, two Area scores, four Branch scores, and eight Task scores. Three Supplemental scores are provided along with the 15 scores (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso 2002; cited by Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2008).

The test, completed by the "client" is given to individuals, aged 17 and older and requires 30-45 minutes to administer. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test - Scales

The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence

Perceiving Emotions: The ability to perceive emotions in oneself and others as well as in objects, art, stories, music, and other stimuli

Facilitating Thought: The ability to generate, use, and feel emotion as necessary to communicate feelings or employ them in other cognitive processes

Understanding Emotions: The ability to understand emotional information, to understand how emotions combine and progress through relationship transitions, and to appreciate such emotional meanings

Managing Emotions: The ability to be open to feelings, and to modulate them in oneself and others so as to promote personal understanding and growth (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2008)

Brackett. And Salovey (2006) examine the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, 2002) and discuss the MSCEIT's four subtests, which include:

scoring methods, psychometric properties, reliability, and factor structure.

Much still needs to be learned about EI, Brackett. And Salovey (2006) contend. They also note that tests such as the MSCEIT will most likely be updated as more about the construct is confirmed. What is currently known, however, the authors state, is encouraging.

The following instruments may be utilized to measure Emotional Intelligence:

EQ-I (Bar-On, 1997): a self-report instrument to assess those personal qualities that enabled some people to possess better emotional well-being than others.

Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1998): a test of ability where the test-taker performs a series of tasks that are designed to assess the persons ability to perceive, identify, understand, and work with emotion.

Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) (Goleman,1998): a 360 degree instrument, where people evaluate either the individuals within an organization (Individual Feedback Reports) or the organization as a whole (WorkForce Audits). These audits can provide an organizational profile for any size group within the company. The Emotional Competence Inventory works with the 19/21 competencies that Goleman's research suggests which are linked to emotional intelligence (Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Measuring Emotional Intelligence with the MSCEIT

Because the MSCEIT encompasses better and worse answers on it, the consensus on expert scoring confirms that it constitutes an objective test.

Consensus scores reflect the proportion of people in the normative sample (over 5,000 people from various parts of the world) who endorsed each MSCEIT test item. Expert norms were obtained from a sample of twenty-one members of the International Society Research on Emotions (ISRE) who provided their expert judgment on each of the test's items" (Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Pros Regarding Emotional Literacy

New Labour has successfully created a consensus that educational achievement leads to social and individual benefits, including the building of self-esteem," Ecclestone cites Kennedy (1997) and DfES (2002) to note. According to Prime Minister Blair low self-esteem constitutes "the most destructive cause and effect of social exclusion," consequently Blair contends, it is vital for the welfare state to award recognition to people and ensure they feel they are valued (Blair 1997; cited by Ecclestone).

Brackett and Salovey (2006) purport that Emotional Intelligence enhances an individual's ability to solve problems and manage his/her emotions in positive ways. In turn, this attribute reportedly proves constitutes a crucial component in students' curriculum. Kim (2004) purports the use of group teaching strategies to teach children "how to handle their feelings of anger, shame, guilt, sadness, jealousy, envy, failure and success. In the past, this type teaching has been the parents' responsibility with schools providing knowledge and information mandated for educating the child academically.

Understanding emotional literacy, Gerry and Christie (2000) argue, constitutes a key "to helping young people develop self-esteem, self-control and so become socially and educationally successful." These authors purport that leaders not only do need to be experts in nurturing effective teamwork and managing relationships in positive ways, but other individuals need to be experts in these areas as well. Although in the past, schools did not promote these particular issues, Gerry and Christie (2000) stress students those involved in educational systems need come to grips with the fact that that students' emotional states, "including their understanding of themselves and others, have a critical impact on their learning."

From working with researchers from the University of Sussex and using EAZ funding, Gerry and Christie (2000) purport that emerging findings suggest that pupils with problematic behaviour suffer from poor social encounters and these, usually negative, experiences, ensure these youth develop an ineffective "theory of mind."

To help foster and nurture, positive social interactions, some schools devise and refine testing materials to define a range of normality for children of various ages.

Also, schools are developing intervention strategies to:

Create situations with successful social interactions to help strengthen students' self-esteem and develop a positive theory of mind design activities in which students work together cooperatively, then later debrief students on the nature of the cooperative skills they utilized.

A model effective social behaviour and encourage youth to talk about these and how people might feel in hypothetical situations (Gerry and Christie 2000).

Complaints regarding children as young as four taking "happiness tests" as part of a drive to force schools to improve pupils' well-being have been verbalized. According to one newspaper article, entitled, "A Happiness Test for Four-Year-olds; Pupils Will Be Given Questionnaires to Monitor Their Mental Health A Happiness Test (2007)," youth will be given questionnaires, similar to the self-help quizzes in women's magazines, to ascertain their mental health ("A Happiness Test for..." 2007, NA). Children will likely be asked if they feel optimistic, confident, loved and interested in others. After the returned, compiled answers are analysed, educational heads will be encouraged to implement special programmes to help pupils make the transition to primary or secondary school and/or schedule sessions as part of day-to-day teaching. The Education and Inspections Act 2006 explicitly requires schools ty to promote the emotional and psychological well-being of pupils by trendy "emotional literacy" classes. These classes are already being taught in numerous schools to teach children to manage jealousy and anger, as well as develop empathy ("A Happiness Test for..." 2007, NA). In response to one controversy relating to EI training, Hugh McKinney, of the National Family Campaign, states over children being told they are naughty: "Common sense surely dictates that this politically correct claptrap doesn't work and it's about time that state-funded organisations like Family Links stop telling us what to do with our lives.' Family Links promotes 'emotional literacy' and 'relationship skills' in schools and families. It receives funding from the Department for Education and Skills and the Department of Health ("Parents Are Told Not..." 2006, 19).

SEAL

The following segment relates points presented by the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning for secondary schools (SEAL) Guidance booklet:

Why are social and emotional skills centralto school improvement?

Social and emotional skills are essential for all those who learn and work in schools. This includes all pupils and staff, not just those pupils with identified social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. Effective learning, high academic standards, an inclusive culture, positive behaviour, good attendance and good professional practice by school staff are challenging to develop unless both pupils and staff have social and emotional skills, and the ability to manage their own behaviour. The evidence is overwhelming that well-designed programmes to promote social and emotional skills can result in gains that are absolutely central to the goals of all schools, including:

better academic results for all pupils and schools;

more effective learning - some well-known programmes have been shown to have demonstrable and measurable effects on attainments of all pupils in reading, non-verbal reasoning, problem solving and planning, learning-to-learn skills and maths;

Social and emotional aspects of learning: guidance higher motivation; better behaviour; higher school attendance; more responsible pupils, who are better citizens and more able to contribute to society; lower levels of stress and anxiety; higher morale, performance and retention of staff; more positive school ethos.

Social and emotional skills contribute to staff effectiveness and well-being. If school staff are to be able to help pupils develop social and emotional skills, then they need these skills too. Such skills inform professional competence as well as learning since teaching is fundamentally a social activity, demanding high levels of emotional sensitivity, good self-management, empathy and the ability to make relationships. Programmes to promote social and emotional skills have been shown to have a beneficial impact on staff well-being, and can help to tackle the high levels of staff stress and improve staff retention (Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning for secondary schools 2007).

One Head Teacher's Perception

In one school, promoting EI, Elizabeth Brown, one head teacher, insists that Emotional Intelligence is vital for students to learn cognitively. For example, she states, "you need to be able to sit still, take turns, behave fairly, share and listen in order to achieve the learning outcomes of each lesson and to get the most out of learning. This is a particular issue for pupils with severe learning difficulties - yet The Grove [Brown's school] has found ways of addressing this successfully (Promoting Emotional 2004, 32)."

One of the teaching methods they have found particularly helpful is Philosophy for Children (P4C), which has been in place in the school since September 2000. P4C uses classroom dialogue as a way of teaching pupils to think, question and interact in an emotionally literate way, as well as promoting an understanding of the subject matter under discussion. The basic approach involves a teacher sharing a piece of reading or listening with the class. The pupils will then take time to devise their own questions before discussing them as a group. Teachers find that, over time, this encourages a real dialogue between pupils who in the past have had difficulties communicating, as well as greater patience, tolerance and understanding of different viewpoints. The approach is frequently used in PSHE lessons, but is useful in any lesson as it encourages pupils to make links, to reflect and to ask questions.... It has helped the pupils to develop their thinking and social skills, within a mainstream approach (Promoting Emotional 2004, 32).

The Heart of Education?

Dr Steve Killick, author of the book, Emotional Literacy at the Heart of the School Ethos, contends:

Helping children deal with their problems should be at the heart of education" ("Vital to Help Pupils," 2006, p. 36).

Dr. Killick challenged difficult behaviour in schools and marginalised young people attending NCH Headlands School in Penarth, near Cardiff.

As he is reportedly passionate about the potential impact of emotional literacy, Dr. Killick argues: "Valuing and respecting others is at the core of emotional literacy and allows us to co-operate and recognise the consequences of our actions on others. " Dr. Killick also states:

There is now a debate about what are the needs of children in the 21st century - how do we help them learn, grow up to contribute to society and how do we help them to feel positive about themselves?

We know there are increasing mental health problems in children and adults. This is now a major challenge for society.

I believe the principles of emotional literacy can make a significant contribution to this debate.

Listening to, respecting and helping children learn about dealing with feelings fosters children's self-respect, and in so doing, learn about respecting others. It increases motivation to learn and to get along with others ("Vital to Help Pupils," 2006, p. 36)."

In connecting emotional literacy and equity with the structure of schooling, Matthews (2005) argues that it [www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22emotional+literacy%22&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b800f1077&accno=ED493221&_nfls=false%20%20%20%20"Engaging Education: Developing Emotional Literacy, Equity and Coeducation] "establishes that co-educational schools can contribute to enabling boys and girls to relate to and understand each other." Matthews (2005) purports that emotional literacy, equity and social justice link to the education of the whole child.

Cons Regarding Emotional Literacy

Rather than pursuing the building of self-esteem as an educational goal, Educators committed to humanist aspirations would do better to challenge therapeutic pedagogy, disguised by radical rhetoric (Ecclestone 137). Emotional Literacy, according to Ecclestone (135), constitutes one of a number of new tendencies to perceive people "as 'victims' of everything from genetics, to childhood experience and life experiences generally, as being 'at risk' or having 'fragile identities'." These propensities, albeit, reportedly resonate with a broader cultural de-moralisation. McKenzie (2003) cites the following 17 reasons against NCLB.

Disappointing Results

Failing Schools

Lack of Quality Teachers

Lowering of Standards

Narrowing of Curriculum

Ignoring of Children

Fear, Shame and Threats

Bad Tests

Fake Results

Educational Triage

Factory Style Learning

Loss of Best Teachers

Loss of Future Teachers

Loss of Morale

Drop Outs and Push Outs

Reduction in Time for Learning

Stagnation

Highlights of Emotional Intelligence History Daniel Goleman, author of "Emotional Intelligence" (1995, cited by Thorndike, Wedhsler, Gardner, Salovey & Mayer, and Goleman 2008) reportedly related the first "proof" relating the value of emotional and social factors. During 1995, Goleman agreed with Salovey's Five Main Domains of Emotional Intelligence (43, cited by Emotional Intelligence, N.d.):

Knowing one's emotions (self-awareness - recognizing a feeling as it happens)

Managing emotions (the ability of handling feelings so they are appropriate)

Motivating oneself (marshalling emotions in the service of a goal)

Recognizing emotions in others (empathy, social awareness)

Handling relationships (skill in managing emotions in others) (Emotional Intelligence, N.d.):

In 2002, seven years later, however, Goleman reportedly favored only Four Domains of Emotional Intelligence. He stresses that the following competencies do not constitute innate talents, but learned abilities.

Self-awareness (Emotional Self-Awareness, Accurate Self-Assessment and Self-Confidence)

Self-management (Emotional Self-Control, Transparency (Trustworthiness, Adaptability, Achievement, Orientation, Initiative, Optimism, Conscientiousness)

Social awareness (Empathy, Organizational Awareness, Service Orientation)

Relationship management (Inspirational leadership Influence. Developing Others, Change Catalyst, Conflict Management, Building Bonds, Teamwork and Collaboration, Communication) (Emotional Intelligence, N.d.).

Ecclestone (2005, 467) presents the following argument against emotional interventions in schools.

In simple assessment terms, images of the diminished self, sweeping claims for emotional well-being and the creation of instruments to measure it combine to turn beliefs into pseudo-scientific constructs. As Stobart argues, a perennial assessment problem emerges -- "namely, that assessment ranks and labels constructs that we create.

Finally, emotional interventions based on the diminished self distract professionals and students from educational experiences that encourage risk, challenge and discomfort as part of striving for autonomy. In America, for example, Noddings argues that if challenge and difficulty in cognitive skills damage self-esteem and undermine emotional well-being, certain students should be allowed to develop 'other skills', a view not dissimilar to the promotion of multiple intelligences (Gardener, 1999; Noddings, 2002). If 'emotional safe spaces' end up as 'education' for those labeled as vulnerable, the erosion of universal educational goals rooted in high aspirations and optimism about human potential will create very insidious forms of inequality. (Ecclestone 2005, 467)

Emotional Literacy Programs

Preventing social and behavioral problems is more effective and less costly than attempts at remediation once the damage has been done," Maurer, Bracket & Plain (2006) insist.

Brackett. And Salovey (2006) note that emotions play important roles, and "differ in the other life domains, including mental and physical health, leisure interests, and career choice." The Emotional Literacy Campaign in the UK correlates with the No Child Left Behind and Every Child Matters campaigns in the U.S. As both campaigns stress the value of children. The Emotional Literacy Campaign in the UK, albeit, appears to invest more focus on Emotional Literacy than the U.S. campaign.

The Therapeutic Turn in Education"

The basics of education, the traditional 3Rs Reading, Writing and Arithmetic, Hayes (2004, 181) contends, currently have "competition from therapeutic alternatives, such as the 3Rs of goodcharacter.com (Responsible, Right and Respect)." Hayes (Ibid) argues that minimizing and/or abandoning the search for knowledge constitutes a blatant bogus idea; that knowledge is eternally essential to society.

With the promotion of EI in schools, the subject of knowledge, the knower (individual) is actually being rejected. "It is the knower not the known that is ultimately the target of the problematisation of knowledge (Ibid)"

Connexions

Connexions is the policy initiative that provides the strongest evidence of therapeutic policy-making. There are approximately 1,231,000 therapeutic workers in Britain today, a grand total that includes guidance workers, mediators, counsellors (632,000) and therapists (Heartfield 2002: 236). The pathologising of ordinary life has become so extensive that people are believed not to be able to cope with any of life's vicissitudes without guidance from therapeutic 'experts'. The original aim of the Connexions strategy was to make sure that this number of therapeutic workers increases dramatically by ensuring that every young person has a 'personal adviser' (PA) to guide them into education, work and adult life. The therapeutic turn is now explicit and the 'C' word (careers) is rarely used; an advertisement for the service has a youngster proclaim: 'There's plenty of people who know about careers. I need someone who knows about me' (Loga 2003). Young people in what used to he the exciting transition to adulthood are now seen as 'at risk' and in need of therapeutic support (Hayes 2004, 183).

Educationalists, along with teacher trainers, Hayes (2004, 185) purports, currently encourage individuals who love their subject, entering teaching, to fashion their teaching techniques around a barrage of therapeutic and counselling techniques. As this trend includes "an overriding concern with their own and their pupils' or students' feelings," education is being transformed into therapy. The liberating project of education, instead of increasing knowledge, more readily focuses on helping people live with their flaws. After recognizing therapeutic initiatives in education, Hayes (2004, 185) stresses, rejecting them will challenge "the go-cart of judgement...that seemingly progressive educational rhetoric disguises a view of future generations as made up of hapless and hopeless people who need lifetime therapy."