Abuses of Power Among Elite Athletes: A Literature Review

Introduction

Elite athletes are routinely subjected to rigors and standards that far exceed those expected of the general public. Many issues common among elite athletes are known to affect either the body or the mind. Some athletes, for instance, are subjected to such high levels of discipline from coaches or parents that the experience can constitute emotional harassment or even abuse. Coaches and parents may also exploit athletes' bodies in a variety of ways. There is often a fine line between maintaining a body capable of peak performance and developing a clinically significant eating disorder. Female athletes frequently attempt to suppress weight gain, while males more commonly seek to increase muscle mass and density. Similarly, narrow thresholds exist between appropriate training and overtraining. Even more extreme abuses of power occur in this population, including sexual harassment and assault. This literature review examines the various forms of power abuse that are common among elite athletes.

Eating Disorders and Weight-Control Behaviors in Elite Athletes

Weight-control behavior is commonly observed across a wide range of elite sports, especially in leanness sports where control over body weight is considered crucial for peak performance. Nonetheless, there is only a fine line between purely functional behavior and clinically relevant eating disorders (Werner, 2013). Female elite athletes have been estimated to represent an at-risk population for developing eating disorders during training, competition, and later in life. One meta-analysis on weight-control behaviors found inconsistent results that varied along factors such as age, gender, and sport type.

Many sports are considered "leanness sports," in which athletes are expected to keep their bodies trim in order to perform optimally. Long-distance runners and sprinters, for example, are expected to maintain extremely low levels of body fat, whereas athletes in sports such as shot-putting, golf, or baseball face no such requirement. Detecting eating disorders (EDs) in elite athletes can be difficult because observers may perceive disordered eating behaviors as consistent with the sport's demands, or they may overlook unusual weight changes for the same reasons. Additionally, elite athletes may fail to report ED behaviors for fear of reprisal, such as being excluded from competition or cut from the team (Torstveit, Rosenvinge, & Sundgot-Borgen, 2007).

Much of the existing research has focused on elite female athletes at the college level. One study identified meaningful differences between lean-sport athletes and other groups. Lean-sport athletes scored higher on body dissatisfaction and reported lower actual and desired body weight than non-lean-sport athletes. Within the athlete sample, the high-risk group included 2.9% of non-lean-sport athletes compared to 25% of lean-sport athletes (Reinking & Alexander, 2005). Given these risk factors, it has been argued that athletic trainers have both the capacity and the responsibility to serve as integral members of the health care team and to facilitate the early detection and treatment of eating disorders (Bonci et al., 2008).

While coaches and trainers can be part of the solution, they are often part of the problem. In some sports, coaches, trainers, and parents may unconsciously project expectations about body image onto athletes; in others, this practice is explicit. Coaches may foster a highly competitive culture in which athletes believe they must use every available tactic to improve their bodies or performances. Athletes in such environments are more likely to develop unhealthy body images that lead to disordered eating or the use of performance-enhancing substances. In sports with weight classifications — such as boxing and wrestling — coaches may even mandate extreme weight-management practices to ensure athletes comply with a particular weight class. More broadly, coaches across competitive sports may pressure athletes to adopt unhealthy behaviors in pursuit of any performance advantage.

Emotional Abuse in the Coach-Athlete Relationship

Although sports are generally perceived as a positive influence on individual development at all ages, there are increasing concerns about the physical and psychological harms that can result from the pursuit of elite-level performance, particularly in children. Whenever a large power gap exists between individuals, there is a temptation to abuse that power. Common examples include employer/employee, coach/athlete, and parent/child relationships. Within these dynamics, emotional damage can be inflicted through verbal hostility, denigration, unrealistic expectations, and induced fear or anxiety through threats, among other behaviors (Stirling, 2011). The intensely competitive nature of elite sport has been argued to make such abusive behaviors more likely.

One study investigated abusive behaviors among twelve former elite child athletes, categorizing those behaviors under eight headings: belittling, humiliating, shouting, scapegoating, rejecting, isolating, threatening, and ignoring. All twelve participants reported experiencing belittling and shouting by their coach; nine reported frequent threatening behavior; nine reported frequent humiliation; seven reported scapegoating; six reported rejection or being ignored; and four reported being isolated (Gervis & Dunn, 2004). A notable finding was that all participants reported their coaches' behavior became more negative after they were identified as elite performers. This suggests that the designation of "elite" elevates a coach's expectations in ways that can intensify abusive conduct. Participants also reported feeling stupid, worthless, upset, less confident, humiliated, depressed, fearful, and angry as a result of their coaches' behavior.

Conclusion

This review has illustrated that abuses of power in elite sport take multiple forms — from subtle pressures around body image to overt emotional and sexual abuse. Across all of these forms, the common thread is the power differential that exists between athletes and the authority figures — coaches, trainers, parents, and broader institutional structures — who shape their sporting lives. Evidence from multiple countries confirms that elite status itself can heighten vulnerability to abuse, whether through intensified coaching demands, male-dominated competitive environments, or culturally normalized harassment. Addressing these abuses requires awareness from health professionals, sports organizations, and broader society alike.

References

Bonci, C., Bonci, L., Granger, L., Johnson, C., Malina, R., Milne, L., . . . Vanerbunt, E. (2008). National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Preventing, detecting, and managing disordered eating in athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 80–108.

Fasting, K., Brackenridge, C., & Knorre, N. (2010). Performance level and sexual harassment prevalence among female athletes in the Czech Republic. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 26–32.

Fasting, K., Brackenridge, C., & Sundgot, B. (2003). Experiences of sexual harassment and abuse among Norwegian elite female athletes and nonathletes. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84–97.

Gervis, M., & Dunn, N. (2004). The emotional abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches. Child Abuse Review, 215–223.

Krauchek, V., & Ranson, G. Playing by the rules of the game: Women's experiences and perceptions of sexual harassment in sport. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 585–611.

Reinking, M., & Alexander, L. (2005). Prevalence of disordered-eating behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate athletes and nonathletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 47–51.

Rodriguez, E., & Gill, D. (2011). Sexual harassment perceptions among Puerto Rican female former athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 323–337.

Stirling, A. (2011). Initiating and sustaining emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship: Athletes', parents', and coaches' reflections. University of Toronto, 1–315.

Torstveit, M., Rosenvinge, J., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. (2007). Prevalence of eating disorders and the predictive power of risk models in female elite athletes: A controlled study. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 1–11.

Werner, A. (2013). Weight-control behaviour and weight-concerns in young elite athletes — a systematic review. Journal of Eating Disorders, 1–18.