African American Women: Oppression, Rights, and Social Work

Introduction

The history of African American women is closely aligned with the history of social and racial oppression in America. The history of this group is also strongly linked to the development of the movement against inequality and the struggle for civil rights in this country, as well as to the history and lasting effects of slavery.

The Black population in the United States is historically composed of various ethnic groups. During the Atlantic slave trade, "over 40 identifiable ethnic groups from at least 25 different kingdoms were sold to British North America" (African American). From the very beginning, therefore, the history of Black people — and particularly African American women — has been one of suffering and oppression. This fact has shaped the various social work and sociological issues that African American women continue to face today.

Aspects of Culture and Tradition

The early history of this group was shaped in a cultural sense by its African heritage. As time passed, these cultural aspects began to diminish or were altered in relation to the dominant white culture. However, African American culture has retained elements that make it a distinctive culture within the American national context. This is evidenced by many studies showing that particular features and characteristics of early Black American culture remain prevalent today. "While African American families share many features with other U.S. families, the African American family has some distinctive features relating to the timing and approaches of marriage and family formation, gender roles, parenting styles, and strategies for coping with adversity" (African American).

These cultural differences are important factors in understanding the particular stresses and strains experienced by African American women, including differences in gender roles as well as in the concept and structure of the family. While it would be incorrect to generalize, there are differences that must be taken into account, especially in the social work context. For instance, the importance of the extended family in African American culture carries social significance that is crucial to understanding the particular situation of African American women. However, static generalizations and cultural stereotyping have been shown to present an erroneous picture and must be guarded against. "Studies have found that African American families display about 70 various structural formations, versus about 40 among white families. This comparison points to the variability of the African American family structure and to the flexibility of family roles" (African American).

Other relevant aspects of the situation of African American women include the finding that African American families tend to be structured in a more hierarchical manner and are "more likely to be strict, to hold demanding behavioral standards, and to use physical discipline" (African American).

Family and religion are extremely important in the overall cultural makeup of African American life. "The family and the church have been the most important institutions in African American families and communities since slavery" (Ruiz, D.S.). There is also a strong reliance on the stability and strength of women within the African American family structure; women often play a leading role in setting moral and behavioral standards. The importance of the extended family is illustrated by the way grandmothers frequently take over the running of the household when mothers are unable to do so. "When mothers cannot fulfill their roles, grandmothers often step in to parent children. In 1998, 1.4 million African American children (12%) lived in their grandparents' home" (African American). Another study notes that "their role responsibilities, especially in the extended family context, are broad and elastic. They have performed crucial roles in the care and welfare of grandchildren, great-grandchildren, fictive kin, and others who may or may not be related by birth" (Ruiz, D.S.).

Cultural studies also indicate a strong emphasis on spiritual life and an awareness of ethnic identity. Various African American cultural organizations, including churches, play an important part in offering both spiritual and practical support.

The focus on African American women in the social work context encompasses their particular position within their own culture and the way they relate to the broader national culture. Research consistently shows that this group remains largely disenfranchised and discriminated against. While such conditions were perhaps more openly acknowledged before the civil rights movement, they remain a significant reality in contemporary America. According to the Catalyst survey Advancing African American Women in the Workplace, "African American women are not advancing as far in corporate America as their white, Asian, and Latina counterparts. The biggest barriers they face are negative, race-based stereotypes; more frequent questioning of their credibility and authority; and a lack of institutional support" (Brown, 2004, p. 46).

Social Work Concerns and Challenges

When one considers the consequences of social oppression and discrimination, it becomes clear why this group is an important area of concern for social work. The negative social position many African American women occupy means they experience a range of unique and serious issues that social workers must be prepared to address.

Key problems that social workers should be aware of when working with this population include domestic violence and partner abuse, alcoholism and drug addiction, depression and related psychological issues, and a range of physical health conditions that are particularly prevalent in this group — including heart disease, sickle cell disease, breast cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS (African American Women's Health and Social Issues). Underlying and exacerbating all of these challenges is the pervasive effect of racial oppression and prejudice.

One important reason why social work intervention is so necessary for this community is that African American women are at high risk for both physically debilitating conditions and social-environmental problems. "African American women are a population at high risk for early development of chronic debilitating illnesses that are due, not only to genetic and intrapsychic factors, but to stresses in their environment that continue to implicate racial discrimination" (Vaz, 2003, p. 14).

Studies also show that social work intervention is critical because African American women have a documented tendency to delay or refuse medical and health assistance until a critical point is reached (Vaz, 2003, p. 14). This avoidance is related to a fear of hospitals and of encountering prejudice and discrimination. This fear also has psychological consequences, and there has been a reported underdiagnosis of conditions such as depression among African American women (Vaz, 2003, p. 14).

Another significant concern is the comparatively high rate of arrest and incarceration of African American women. Jacobs (2004) reports that in New York, 53 percent of women incarcerated in state prison were African American (Jacobs, 2004, p. 795). This is indicative of the underlying social and domestic problems that this group faces.

Drug and alcohol abuse and dependency are also prominent social and health issues for this population. Studies have found a relatively high rate of substance abuse among African American women, which can be attributed to factors such as feelings of oppression and social discrimination (Washington & Moxley, 2003, p. 146). Among the factors identified as influencing drug and alcohol use in this group are "sociodemographic status, race and ethnicity, interpersonal relationships, and life events" (Lucas, Goldschmidt & Day, 2003, p. 273). Research also highlights prenatal alcohol abuse, noting that "ethnicity and race have been identified as significant correlates of prenatal alcohol use" and that "African American women were more likely to continue to drink throughout pregnancy than were white women" (Lucas, Goldschmidt & Day, 2003, p. 273).

Domestic and partner violence are additional areas requiring attention from social workers. Research has shown that African American women are subjected to this form of abuse more than other groups, and that this is related in many instances to socioeconomic issues linked to race and social status. A study by Thompson et al. (2000) found that "partner violence was related to lower perceived social support and greater psychological distress, and lower social support was related to more distress." The study further noted that "findings point to the need for service providers to screen for partner violence in nontraditional sites, such as hospital emergency rooms, and to address the role of social support resources in preventive interventions with African American battered women" (Thompson et al., 2000, p. 127).

Conclusion

There is little doubt that this minority group is one which faces unique and often extreme problems, largely as a result of discrimination and racial prejudice. These challenges are further compounded by the central and demanding role that African American women play within their particular family and cultural frameworks. The relative scarcity of research on certain aspects of African American women's experience is a significant concern for the social work profession. This is a population that deserves — and requires — considerably more attention, targeted assistance, and culturally informed research.