This paper examines eschatology—the theological study of end times—with a particular focus on Christian traditions and their influence on American society. It surveys the key features shared across religious end times theories, then analyzes the three major strands of Christian eschatology: millennialism, premillennialism, and dispensationalism. The paper also explores how end times beliefs have shaped real-world political behavior, including the Christian Zionist movement and its impact on Middle East peace efforts. Additional sections address New Age and indigenous eschatologies, the cultural prominence of apocalyptic themes in popular media, and the broader sociological implications of believing the world's end is imminent.
End times is a less sensational phrase than apocalypse and refers to a religiously forecasted end of the world. It is often a controversial subject in the study of religions, and sometimes makes for a fascinating sociological and psychological study of a religion's adherents. In academic theology, the end times falls under the rubric of eschatology — a term that literally means "the study of the end of things." In popular culture, the end times inspires waves of film and television shows that graphically depict a devastating and gloomy apocalypse. Popular literature also teems with novels about end times, such as Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins' series Left Behind. Self-help and other popular nonfiction bookshelves overflow with titles related to the end times. Some books center on religion, spirituality, and how the individual should approach the end times; others focus on historical signs or esoteric symbols related to the end of the world.
The end times is not always viewed as a negative event or process, although it often is. Regardless of how the end times are conceived and in which religion they appear, eschatology is a natural counterpart to the creation myth. Both are universal among the world's great religions. Few religions are as concerned — even obsessed — with the end times as Christianity.
Christianity is not the only religion to cultivate interest in end times, but it offers one of the most colorful and complex visions of the ultimate fate of humanity. Moreover, the Christian concept of the end times is familiar to and embraced by a wide number of Americans. Whole Christian ministries in the United States are devoted to the end times, such as the Endtime Ministries — one of several organizations in the country that perceives current events, and especially international politics, in terms of the end times. Almost unfailingly, the American obsession with the end times is linked with apocalyptic visions rooted in the New Testament Book of Revelation. "For evangelical Christians with an interest in prophecy, the headlines always come with asterisks pointing to scriptural footnotes" (Gibbs).
End times theories can be loosely categorized as either historical or mythological. Historical end times take place in familiar temporal and spatial realities, whereas mythological end times are abstract and occur in spiritual or intangible worlds. The Christian end times, as well as Jewish and Muslim eschatologies, are historical. Hindu end times stories offer good examples of mythological eschatology. Both historical and mythological eschatologies share certain elements in common that allow them to be studied together.
Regardless of the religion, end times theories share several key features that distinguish them from other theological issues. All end times theories correspond to the religion's overall cosmology and theology and should be viewed in that context. The end time always signifies some kind of catastrophic event or cosmic upheaval with grave consequences for humanity. The gravity of the apocalypse is offset by the belief that it will be followed by "a perfected era" (Gorenberg 3). In all religions that include end times stories, the end of the world is foretold or predicted in scripture. Judgment is also a key feature of eschatology: during the end times, human beings — individually and collectively — are evaluated for their spiritual merits or lack thereof. Myths and powerful imagery always accompany end times stories. Finally, all religions advise their followers on how to approach or prepare for the end times. The end times is viewed as an inevitability, but one that can be accepted — even welcomed — by the devout.
Rational responses to the end times are predictably dismissive: "throughout recorded history people have believed that the end of the world is about to happen, and it hasn't happened yet" ("End Times"). Not espousing end times — or religion in general — does not preclude interest in the role of eschatology in religious studies. End times stories also offer wondrous imagery and symbolism that can be appreciated on their own terms. For Christians, though, the end time is real and "going to happen soon" ("End Times"). A full third of Americans believe that the Bible is the actual "word of God" and must therefore be taken literally (Gibbs). Fundamentalist or evangelical Christians comprise the "largest single religious grouping in the United States."
Some writings related to the end of days are downright disturbing. Hanegraaff cites popular end times writer LaHaye as claiming that "as a direct result of the crucifixion of Christ, twenty-first-century Jews will soon die in an Armageddon that will make the Nazi Holocaust pale by comparison" (xxi). About two-thirds of all Jews are estimated to die in this scenario, an event believed to be "right around the corner" (Hanegraaff xxi). LaHaye further claims that such historical events were predicted or "revealed" in the New Testament. Hanegraaff, LaHaye, and other writers reveal a major trend in evangelical Christian discourse.
The phenomenon is known as Christian Zionism: a movement dedicated to hastening the events foretold in the Book of Revelation by offering political and financial aid to Zionist groups. "For Christians who interpret the Bible in a literal fashion, Israel has a crucial role to play in bringing on the Second Coming of Christ" (McKay). CBS reporter Mary Jayne McKay suggests that the relationship between Christian fundamentalists and Zionists may be preventing peace in the Middle East. "The Christian fundamentalists believe the only Israelis who are really listening to God are the hard-line Jewish settlers who live on the West Bank and Gaza and refuse to move. The Christians trudge up to these settlements as if they were making pilgrimages to holy shrines." McKay also notes that "many fundamentalists believe that when Prime Minister Rabin signed the Oslo Accords and offered to trade land for peace, it was not only a mistake, it was a sin."
Eschatology has had more impact on international politics than it might appear; the end of the world is not just a quaint religious teaching. Gorenberg points out that "in Israel, belief in final redemption has driven the most dedicated opponents of peace agreements" (3). Even Islam weighs in, offering its own version of the end times as millions of Arab and Palestinian lives hang in the balance. "Among Muslims," Gorenberg claims, "expectation of the final Hour helps feed exaggerated fears about Israel's actions in Jerusalem" (3).
The Christian belief in the end of days is often supplemented by a New Age twist. The prophecies of French esotericist Nostradamus and the Mayan calendar are two of the most significant examples of how New Age theories of the end times correspond with Christian ones. The result is a curious mixture of apocalyptic philosophies that makes for compelling film and fiction. Movies with explicitly apocalyptic titles like Armageddon illustrate the role end times plays in the public consciousness.
"Millennialism, premillennialism, and dispensationalism explained"
"Central figures and events in Christian end times"
"Mayan calendar and non-Christian apocalyptic traditions"
"Cultural and sociological impact of apocalyptic belief"
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