This paper provides a comprehensive overview of colorectal cancer, the second leading cancer killer among cancers affecting both men and women in the United States. It examines the disease's pathophysiology, including the genetic mutations in epithelial cells that drive tumor development, and outlines the primary risk factors such as age, family history, and personal history of related conditions. The paper then addresses clinical manifestations, diagnostic methods, nursing diagnoses and interventions, and available treatment options including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapy. The discussion concludes with an assessment of prognosis, emphasizing that early detection significantly improves outcomes.
The paper demonstrates effective synthesis of multiple scholarly and governmental sources within a single thematic framework. Rather than summarizing each source in isolation, the writer weaves together CDC statistics, NCI clinical guidelines, and nursing textbook content to build a unified picture of the disease. This technique — layering complementary sources to reinforce a single point — is a foundational skill in health sciences writing.
The paper opens with a brief contextual overview establishing the disease's prevalence, then proceeds through seven clearly delineated sections. Each section addresses a discrete clinical domain: etiology and genetics, symptom presentation, diagnostic procedures, nursing care, medical treatment, and outcome prediction. The conclusion broadens the scope slightly by noting related cancers and reinforcing the public health message of early screening.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2011) observes that "of cancers that affect both men and women, colorectal cancer is the second leading cancer killer in the United States." In basic terms, this type of cancer, as the CDC (2011) further notes, affects the colon (large intestine) or the rectum. Colorectal cancer is therefore a significant public health concern, warranting careful attention to its pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, nursing interventions, treatment options, and prognosis.
The exact causes of colorectal cancer remain unknown. However, a number of risk factors have been identified. These include, but are not limited to, age. According to the National Cancer Institute (NCI, 2012), most individuals diagnosed with colorectal cancer are aged 50 and above. Other risk factors identified by NCI (2012) include a personal history of polyps or ulcerative colitis, a family history of rectal or colon cancer, and a personal history of other cancers such as breast, ovarian, or colon cancer.
As Yarbro, Wujcik, and Gobel (2010) point out, "in colorectal cancers, a series of mutations occurs in the epithelial cells of the colonic and rectal mucosa." These mutations, as the authors further note, affect the body's somatic cells. In such cases, the offspring may not inherit these changes from the parent, since the reproductive cells are not essentially affected. However, it is important to note that similar mutations can in some instances occur in certain individuals' "germ-line (reproductive) proto-oncogenes and some germ-line tumor suppressor genes" (Yarbro, Wujcik, and Gobel, 2010). According to the authors, a child could inherit these mutations from a parent.
The clinical manifestations of colorectal cancer, according to Davey (2010), largely depend on the site of the tumor. It is important to note that during its early stages, colorectal cancer may not present any symptoms. As the tumor progresses, the associated symptoms become less subtle and more specific. At this point, the cancer may have advanced to a stage that is relatively difficult to treat.
Some of the most common symptoms of colorectal cancer, according to NCI (2012), include the presence of blood in the stool, fatigue, and vomiting. Other symptoms may include unexplained weight loss, constipation or diarrhea, and frequent gas pains (NCI, 2012). As noted, symptoms are likely to vary depending on both the location and size of the cancer. It should also be recognized that these symptoms do not necessarily indicate colorectal cancer, since several other medical conditions — including rectal ulcers — can present similarly. Individuals experiencing such symptoms should therefore be advised to undergo screening to determine the actual cause.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — CDC (2011, July 18). Basic information about colorectal cancer. Retrieved January 6, 2013, from the CDC website: http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/colorectal/basic_info/index.htm
Davey, P. (Ed.). (2010). Medicine at a glance (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Medifocus (2011). Medifocus guidebook on: Colorectal cancer. Medifocus.com, Inc.
National Cancer Institute — NCI (2012, September 11). Colon cancer treatment. Retrieved January 6, 2013, from the National Cancer Institute website: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/colon/Patient/page1/AllPages
Smeltzer, S., Bare, B. G., Hinkle, J. L., & Cheever, K. H. (2010). Brunner and Suddarth's textbook of medical-surgical nursing (12th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
White, L., Duncan, G., & Baumle, W. (2010). Foundations of adult health nursing (3rd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Cengage Learning.
Yarbro, C., Wujcik, D., & Gobel, B. H. (2010). Cancer nursing: Principles and practice (7th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
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