This paper examines the concept of the self from sociological and psychological perspectives, arguing that the self is a dynamic, composite entity shaped by both internal psychological forces and external social influences. Drawing on Fiske's Social Beings, William James's distinctions between material and spiritual selves, and several empirical studies, the paper traces the development of self-concept through self-perception, social comparison, and identity formation. It also investigates how emotion, self-esteem, and social factors — including body image ideals and minority group membership — interact to shape the way individuals perceive and present themselves. The paper concludes that the self is a continually evolving construct resistant to simple linear explanation.
The paper demonstrates effective synthesis of multiple scholarly sources around a single contested concept. Rather than summarizing each source in isolation, the writer weaves Fiske, James, Klein, and others into a cumulative argument, using each source to extend or complicate the previous point. This technique — building an argument through layered source integration — is essential in undergraduate social science writing.
The paper follows a classic academic structure: an introductory section that establishes the debate and stakes; a definitions section that grounds key terminology; a developmental section tracing how self-concept forms; an analytical section examining emotion and self-esteem with empirical case studies; and a synthesizing conclusion. Each section builds on the previous one, moving from abstract definition toward concrete psychological and social consequences.
The concept of the self is one of the most controversial and debated subjects across many disciplines. From a sociological and socio-psychological point of view, the dominant trend in contemporary literature is that the self is primarily a social construct. This means that the self has no actual existence outside the processes of social and cultural interaction and socialization.
However, this view is contrasted with more psychological and even religious perspectives, which see the self as having an existence independent of society, social norms, and social persuasion. This stance tends to regard the human self as a combination of innate and internal psychological forces developing in conjunction with the demands and requirements of society and culture. It is the interface between the sociological and psychological views that presents the most interesting and convincing perspective on the complex problem of the self. This paper explores the concept of the self, taking both of these perspectives into account.
Defining the self is notoriously difficult. In chapter five of Social Beings, Fiske points out that the self is a dynamic concept that changes in relation to the environment, culture, and social setting, as well as in relation to the affective needs of the moment. In other words, "The dynamic self is not a simple fixed entity" (Fiske, 2004, p. 170).
On a more formal theoretical level, there are a number of definitions that approach the complexity of understanding what constitutes the self. William James, for example, attempted to define the self as an extension of the material body (Fiske, 2004, p. 171). James also distinguished between the material self and a deeper, more complex spiritual self — what most people refer to as the "real" self (Fiske, 2004, p. 171). Any complete definition must also extend to include aspects such as emotions, behavior patterns, attitudes, and abilities.
In attempting to understand the nature of the self, account should also be taken of the distinction between the private and the public, or social, sense of self. The social self is an extremely important facet of identity and often means that a single individual possesses a number of different personae, or "selves," that must be incorporated into the concept of identity. For example, a person may maintain a self-schema — a set of presentation variables — to meet various social and personal demands, such as the roles of parent, professional, and community member simultaneously.
Taking the above points into account, we can tentatively describe the human self as a composite of many different aspects and attributes combined to create a unique human identity. At the same time, we must distinguish between who we are and how we and others perceive us — a distinction explored in the sections that follow.
A self-concept is defined as a "cognitive representation of the self" (Fiske, 2004, p. 172). The word cognition is derived from the Latin cognoscere, meaning "to know" or "to recognize." A self-concept therefore refers to how we know and recognize ourselves. In this regard, psychologists distinguish between identity and self-concept: identity is almost completely determined by social factors, such as social roles and responsibilities (Fiske, 2004, p. 180), whereas the development of a concept of self — an understanding of who and what one is — involves both social and psychological components that are often inextricably intertwined. As Fiske states, "both are critical parts of people's multifaceted self-concept" (Fiske, 2004, p. 180). In other words, self-concept is a combination of an internal self-schema and the various social roles and responsibilities that contribute to the composite self.
The social creation of self and identity plays a very important role in the construction of self-concept. The cognition of who and what one is, is heavily influenced by social roles and social views about the self. In this regard, one can point to the way that the social construction of Black identity has changed over time, and how the prevailing societal view of a Black person can impact the way that individual views him- or herself.
There are therefore two general pathways through which an individual develops a sense of self. The first involves reactions and input received from friends and family — a more internal and intimate process. The second involves social relationships and broader interaction with society. These two pathways roughly correspond to the psychological and sociological modes of understanding the self.
In terms of self-perception theory, one develops a concept of self by observing one's own behavior. This also encompasses inner experience and the self-perception of internal feelings and responses to events. As a study by Klein (1995) notes, self-perception plays a vital role in the emotional and behavioral aspects of self-development: "Positive self-perception, or high self-esteem, is a desired outcome of the developmental process. It has been linked to long-term mental health… Self-perception has been shown to reflect developing cognitive abilities and social circumstances" (Klein, 1995, p. 579). Self-perception is also closely linked to self-esteem, as discussed in the section below.
Some experts suggest, however, that the most significant way we experience and develop our concept of self is through interaction and relationships, and through social comparison with others. In essence, this means that our sense of self and the way we perceive ourselves is largely determined by social interaction.
The concept of the self is a complex and often difficult issue to define and discuss. The self is not amenable to easy or simple linear explanation. What the above discussion suggests is that the concept of self is a composite of both private and public self-perceptions. The individual self is often experienced as an ambiguous array of views and perceptions about one's own identity. The importance of social and cultural factors in shaping and developing the personal self cannot be underestimated — numerous studies demonstrate that social influences shape, and often determine, the self.
At the same time, the relationship between emotion and self-esteem plays a major role in shaping the self and in determining how the individual presents him- or herself. In the final analysis, the word dynamic best captures the nature of the self. The self is a continually changing and evolving entity. While it has its roots in the individual's psyche, it is also influenced by the social environment and by social factors such as media and community. Understanding the self therefore requires sustained engagement with both its psychological foundations and its social dimensions.
Bornman, E. (1999). Self-image and ethnic identification in South Africa. Journal of Social Psychology, 139(4), 411–425.
Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Klein, H. A. (1995). Self-perception in late adolescence: An interactive perspective. Adolescence, 30(119), 579+.
Monteath, S. A., & McCabe, M. P. (1997). The influence of societal factors on female body image. Journal of Social Psychology, 137(6), 708–727.
Verkuyten, M. (1998). Perceived discrimination and self-esteem among ethnic minority adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology, 138(4), 479–493.
Always verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.