This paper examines the constructionist policy design approach developed by Schneider and Ingram (1997) and applies it to two central questions: why public policies frequently fail to serve democracy, and what social justice impacts those policies have on marginalized and excluded groups. Drawing on social construction theory, the paper argues that policymakers formulate policies based on their own constructions of social reality — classifying citizens as "deserving" or "undeserving" — which introduces bias, discourages active citizenship, and promotes dependency among disadvantaged populations. The paper also connects these theoretical insights to a broader research interest in how policy designs are manipulated for political gain at the expense of citizens' genuine needs and interests.
Policy design approaches can be described as mechanisms or measures utilized to develop and implement policies in light of specific goals. These goals identify the particular issues that a policy must address during implementation. According to Schneider and Ingram (1997), some of the most essential components of public policy include problem definition, goal articulation, probable benefits, target population, policy directives or rules, and tools to be utilized in implementing those directives. In most cases, policies are developed to help address aspects of social behavior in order to enhance the quality of life and experiences of citizens. There are different policy design approaches used in the development and enactment of policies, one of which is the constructionist policy design approach. This approach suggests that policies are developed and implemented based on the social realities of citizens, and it can be applied to understand why public policies often fail to serve democracy and to examine the social justice impacts of public policy.
The constructionist policy design approach was developed by Schneider and Ingram (1997) to explore how social realities shape public policies. Schneider and Ingram (1997) argue that social construction refers to the various processes through which the social realities of the world are influenced and developed. Consequently, policy scholars believe that public policy is targeted toward the beliefs, stereotypes, and images that shape people's identities and link them with others within a social group that is likely to benefit from — or be burdened by — policy. Schneider and Ingram (1997) further contend that since social construction focuses on social realities, public policies are mainly geared toward addressing social problems and governance issues. This means that policy design is intrinsically intentional and normative, since policies are developed and implemented to serve specific interests, values, and purposes. According to Burnier (1994), an individual's realities develop into a specific social order because reality is viewed as a social construction.
One of the critical governance issues that public policy must address is democracy, an important component of political leadership. In many countries, political leaders are elected through a democratic process. Democracy literally means "rule by the people," implying that the majority have their way in political decision making. While democracy provides an opportunity for the minority to express their thoughts and opinions, the will of the majority ultimately prevails. The form of democracy most commonly used today is representative democracy, in which people elect individuals to represent them in governance through various political institutions. Therefore, democracy essentially entails implementing the will of the majority — government by the people and for the people — and public policymakers are elected or appointed by the people to serve the people's interests.
Throughout history, public policies have seemingly often failed to serve democracy, as evidenced by widespread criticism of policy outcomes. The failure of public policies to reflect the wishes and interests of the people can be explained in several ways, including through the constructionist policy design approach. While numerous policies have been adopted to promote democracy or serve people's interests, they have frequently failed to achieve those goals despite addressing some fundamental individual rights related to political participation. In the United States, citizens have continued to express dissatisfaction with the country's democracy even though they possess the right to vote, freedom of speech, and the liberty to run for political office. Although various public policies have been enacted to increase citizens' participation in governance, they have largely failed to serve the interests and wishes of the people. On one hand, public policies aim to promote the involvement of citizens in political processes and decision making. On the other hand, these policies do not fully serve people's other interests because politicians frequently enact policies that serve their own interests instead.
Through the constructionist policy design approach, one reason society produces public policies that fail to serve democracy is the policies' inability to meet people's expectations or interests. Policymakers are expected to identify pressing societal issues and formulate policies that address them effectively; however, in some cases they develop and enact policies that fail to do so. Social realities — the premise of social construction — shape people's expectations and interests, and public policies are established to meet those expectations in order to be considered effective. Public policies have failed to serve democracy because they are relatively incapable of meeting the needs, expectations, and interests of society. This is particularly evident when policies are evaluated from a governance perspective — that is, how public officials and institutions work toward meeting the interests and needs of people. In this regard, public officials and institutions do not implement policies in a manner that effectively addresses those interests and expectations. Consequently, enacted policies fall short of serving the people's interests. As public policies fail to serve people's interests, they also fail to empower, enlighten, and involve citizens in the self-government process (Soss, 1999).
For example, economic development and labor policies have failed to deliver long-term economic wellbeing to citizens in a manner that meets their expectations. People are forced to struggle with growing income inequality because of relatively heavy taxation and regulatory policies (Schneider & Ingram, 1997). Meanwhile, policies designed to provide welfare have ended up generating economic dependency rather than ending poverty as intended. Because of this dependency, welfare recipients rely on initiatives by public officials and institutions to survive, especially during difficult economic times (Soss, 1999). While politicians deliver speeches about improving the plight of welfare recipients during legislative debates and electoral campaigns, welfare policies are enacted and implemented in ways that do not actually end poverty.
These examples demonstrate the discrepancy between public policies and people's expectations. As long as these discrepancies persist, public policies will continue to fall short of serving democracy. While public policies are ostensibly designed around people's interests, implementation is not carried out in a manner that addresses those interests and expectations. From a social construction perspective, public policies do not effectively tackle the devastating social realities of people, which means they significantly fail to serve democracy — a system grounded in the will of the majority.
The second explanation for why society produces public policies that fail to serve democracy, from a social constructionist perspective, is that policy designs tend to discourage active citizenship (Schneider & Ingram, 1997). In most cases, policy development processes are led by public officials and legislators who engage in extensive debates about policy directives and intentions. During this process, the measures driving policy development are not necessarily guided by citizens' interests but are largely shaped by the wishes and desires of policymakers and legislators. While policymakers and legislators are mandated to develop policies that enhance citizens' lives, they may fail to meaningfully engage citizens in the policymaking process. Schneider and Ingram (1997) state that some societal contexts encourage the use of policy designs that promote antidemocratic tendencies, which are harmful to democracy. The selection of such policy designs reflects the fact that policy designs are often by-products of historical processes that incorporate social constructions of target populations, institutions, and power relationships. This means policymakers rely on their own social constructions of knowledge, institutions, target populations, and power relationships — constructions that may not accurately reflect the current interests and expectations of the people, which in turn leads to public policies that fail to serve democracy. Therefore, flawed public policies regarding democratic service can be attributed to degenerative patterns of policymaking and inaccurate social constructions of people's interests and expectations.
"Stigmatization and dependency harm excluded populations"
"Deserving/undeserving classifications enable political manipulation"
Social construction and public policy is an issue that has dominated existing literature and studies on policy formulation, implementation, and political action. The constructionist policy design approach is one of the concepts that provides significant insights into the link between social construction and public policy. As demonstrated in this analysis, policy designs are largely dependent on social constructions of knowledge, targeted citizens, institutions, and power relationships. These factors come into play when creating public policies to address the various issues that citizens face. As a result of the centrality of social construction in the policymaking process, public policy designs are biased toward serving the interests of advantaged groups over those of disadvantaged groups — including the excluded and marginalized. Addressing this bias is essential if public policy is to fulfill its democratic purpose of serving all citizens equitably.
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