This paper examines cultivation theory as a framework for understanding how mass media shapes societal attitudes toward sexuality. Drawing on studies by Jerel Calzo, Jennifer Bonds-Raacke, and Ronald Werner-Wilson, the paper analyzes how television portrayals of homosexuality — particularly characters from shows like Ellen and Will & Grace — influence audience perceptions. The paper explores the mainstreaming and resonance effects identified by Calzo, the positive attitude shifts documented by Bonds-Raacke, and Werner-Wilson's findings on adolescent sexuality and passive media consumption. Together, these studies suggest that while media may not directly alter individual behavior, it meaningfully shapes how viewers understand and evaluate the sexuality of others.
Cultivation theory suggests that societal attitudes can be shaped and informed by both media and peers. According to Jerel Calzo (2009), portrayals of homosexuality in television shows like Will & Grace help inspire greater social awareness and acceptance of homosexuality in America. Likewise, Jennifer Bonds-Raacke (2007) argues from a cultivation theory perspective that American media has influenced a significant portion of American society to at least a level of indifference regarding homosexuality as a behavioral norm. Werner-Wilson (2004) similarly implies that television and radio media can encourage risky sexual behavior. This paper examines how cultivation theory helps explain the relationship between media and developing trends in popular attitudes with regard to both hetero- and homosexuality.
As Jerel Calzo observes, "Attitudes towards homosexuality have been shown to vary along different demographic dimensions such as gender or political orientation." Calzo states that attitudes regarding homosexuality are learned through cultivation, which can be affected by parents, friends, and religious institutions — a distinctive argument of cultivation theory. The greatest contribution to the shaping of Americans' attitudes toward homosexuality, according to Calzo, is, however, the American media. Calzo argues that "media portrayals may be a primary source of information for the 40% of American adults who claim not to know a gay person personally."
While Calzo uses a qualitative analysis of prime-time network programming to contend that homosexual portrayals — such as those seen on Ellen or Will & Grace — stereotypically represent characters who lack "stable relationships...[are] laughable, one-dimensional figures...[and who] tend to be promiscuous, infected with HIV, or have unsatisfying sexual and romantic relationships," he, like Werner-Wilson, sees such media representations as helping to reinforce stereotypical attitudes regarding hetero- and homosexuality.
Before assessing cultivation effects, however, Calzo first sets out to test his theory by looking for signs of where diverging attitudes of separate social groups become similar. Claiming that most social groups respond to material that reflects their own already formulated opinions, Calzo explains that certain shows will resonate with certain groups. His finding is that media does have a mainstreaming effect on the general population: women, whom Calzo assesses as most tolerant of homosexuality prior to media exposure, become less tolerant after exposure, while men, whom Calzo assesses as least tolerant, become more tolerant following media exposure.
Jennifer Bonds-Raacke surveyed participants and asked them to recall memorable homosexual characters from television. Her study "indicated that over two-thirds of heterosexual participants recalled either Ellen or Will, and evaluative ratings for these characters were generally positive." Bonds-Raacke's study led her to conclude that "those recalling a positive portrayal later showed a more positive attitude toward gay men than those recalling a negative portrayal, and women had a more positive attitude overall than men toward gay men and lesbians." As Bonds-Raacke observes, positively portrayed homosexual characters do affect a viewer's attitude toward homosexuality in a positive way.
"Werner-Wilson on teens, passive viewing, and sexual norms"
Cultivation theory helps explain the relationship between shifting attitudes in sexual behavior and gender codes and what is represented in the media with regard to those same codes and behaviors. Media plays a significant part in shaping societal attitudes, as Calzo, Bonds-Raacke, and Werner-Wilson demonstrate, but so do peers, families, and religion. While television may not affect individual lifestyle changes directly, it may affect the way behavior is perceived and appreciated. Younger audiences, however, may very well be taking actions informed by what they see on television, thus providing evidence of a cultivation effect (Werner-Wilson).
You’re 67% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 1 section.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.