This paper examines how media-influenced body image affects the development of self-identity, particularly in adolescents and young adults. Drawing on Erikson's psychosocial development model, Rogers' theory of self, and Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it argues that unrealistic media body ideals interfere with healthy identity formation by misaligning the ideal and actual self and undermining the esteem needs central to self-actualization. Current research by Veldhuis et al. (2020) and Gattario and Frisen (2019) is reviewed to show how body appreciation movements on social media may counter these harmful effects. The paper concludes that social support and authentic self-presentation are key to cultivating positive body image and, by extension, a stable self-identity.
The formation of self-identity is a major part of psychosocial development according to numerous researchers and scholars (Lumen, 2021). Erikson developed a model of psychosocial development in which every stage is defined by a conflict that must be overcome (McLeod, 2018). For adolescents, that conflict is between identity formation and role confusion. Others, such as Adams and Marshall (1996), noted that identity is brought about as a result of both personal and social phenomena. Bandura (2018) observed that the three main factors influencing how people think about themselves and how they act are peers, groups, and media. The development of self-identity through media-influenced body image is therefore an area deserving of focused attention in identity research. This paper examines the relevant psychological theories and concepts that apply, discusses current research on the matter, and argues that this topic is important because of the major influence media has and how that influence impacts the way people think about their bodies and identities — sometimes in harmful ways.
Erikson's psychosocial model of development consists of eight stages, with each stage defined by the developmental task an individual must encounter in order to move on to the next. Infants, for example, deal with the trust vs. mistrust task. Elderly people deal with integrity vs. despair. For adolescents, the main conflict is identity vs. role confusion. Between the ages of 12 and 18, youths are forming a sense of who and what they are. Media plays a significant role in how they see themselves, according to Bandura (2018).
Other theories relevant to this discussion are Carl Rogers' theory of self and Maslow's theory of human motivation. Rogers' theory of self is based on two distinct views of the self — the ideal self and the actual self. It is a person-centered theory rooted in the idea that "the best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual" (Rogers, 1951, p. 495). Understanding what the individual is going through, how the individual sees himself or herself, and what the individual wants to be is central to developing a sense of the person. For Maslow (1943), human beings cannot reach their full potential (self-actualization) until lower-level needs are met first, including the need for esteem and love. From the perspective of his hierarchy of needs, it is evident that people trying to develop a self-identity need a strong foundation of esteem and love in order to become self-actualized — that is, firm in their sense of who they are.
From these perspectives, one can see that people struggling with their identity through media-influenced body image are trying to conform to idealized images, often to their own detriment. They may believe that if they conform to an idealized media-influenced body image they will obtain the esteem they seek and arrive at a sense of self. Yet they are frequently conflicted: their ideal self does not align with their actual self, and this misalignment creates problems, as Rogers points out.
Current research notes that more and more young people are turning to media to guide them in developing self-identity (Malbon, 2020). Kilbourne (2010) notes that idealized media-influenced body images can have harmful effects on young women, who may develop disorders as they seek to attain the unrealistic body image presented to them in media. Eating disorders, phobias, and depression can all become problems. Kearney (2010) likewise states that "media are sites of considerable ideological negotiation and contestation, that is, sites of struggle over meaning and values" (p. 3). This negotiation can be seen in popular press magazines like Cosmopolitan, which routinely presents readers with specific body image ideals.
Malbon (2020), writing for Cosmopolitan, explains that body image is the picture people form in their minds of what they look like — it is how one sees oneself. Yet, as Rogers noted, people know that they do not always look the way they see themselves in their own minds, or the way they want others to see them. There is thus a conflict built into the very conception of body image. What is in the mind is not always real, and attempting to make that image real can sometimes lead to problems such as depression, eating disorders, or even self-harm. At the same time, Malbon (2020) notes that cultivating a healthy body image is important, and that this means cultivating a sense of body acceptance — a concept that other researchers have also highlighted in their work.
For instance, Veldhuis et al. (2020) examined "relationships between body image, self-objectification, self-esteem, and various selfie behaviors among young women" (p. 3) and found that body image is a motivating factor in young women's use of social networking sites like Instagram. These sites also reinforce body images, so that a cycle of body image presentation and body image development is sustained. However, the researchers also found that body appreciation is part of the equation, and not all users who post selfies do so to present an unrealistic or idealized body image: some post out of genuine body appreciation.
This finding draws an important distinction: body image is how one sees oneself in one's mind, while body appreciation is acceptance of one's own physical attributes. There is currently a trend online of people demonstrating body appreciation by posting realistic pictures of themselves — flaws and all — to illustrate the difference between the photoshopped images of magazines and advertisements and what everyone deals with in real life: stretch marks, fat, moles, and so on. Veldhuis et al. (2020) thus show that a movement exists in which people promote body appreciation rather than idealized body image, and this could have positive ramifications for self-identity development. As Rogers argues, there should be alignment between the ideal and actual selves; and as Maslow points out, self-actualization cannot be achieved until the lower-level need for esteem is satisfied. Promoting body appreciation online may be a meaningful step toward meeting that need.
This process is all part of the journey from negative to positive body image, for both young men and young women as they move through adolescence into adulthood, according to Gattario and Frisen (2019). Their research focuses on how young people develop positive body image by the age of 18. The keys to developing positive body image include having a social context in which one is accepted and having a sense of agency that allows one to become empowered — or self-actualizing. Another key is a shift in thinking: negative body image is associated with unrealistic ideals about body appearance, while positive body image is associated more with body acceptance, although this does not mean one cannot continue to develop the body according to goals one wants to pursue (Gattario & Frisen, 2019). A major factor in growing toward a positive body image that supports a positive self-identity is the level of social support one receives — a finding that aligns directly with Maslow's hierarchy of needs, in which developing esteem is crucial.
"Cultural stakes, male gaze, and social media counter-trends"
Self-identity is an important part of growing up, as Erikson's model demonstrates. Today's media-influenced culture makes healthy identity development difficult, however, when unrealistic body images are presented as normal. Body image can be positive or negative, and when it is positive the ideal and the actual self are brought into alignment — which is precisely what Rogers argues is necessary for psychological health. Positive body image is supported by strong esteem, which in turn facilitates the development of self-actualization and a stable self-identity. To encourage positive body image, people on social media today are embracing body acceptance and posting pictures of themselves that are authentic. Acceptance of the authentic self — body acceptance — is supported by cognitive development and social support. Thus, Maslow's insight still holds: esteem remains foundational to the development of the self.
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