Cyber Bullying: Causes, Effects, and Impact on Youth

Introduction

Over the past decade, significant attention has been drawn to cyber bullying by both the media and researchers. Research on cyber bullying has covered various behavioral aspects, focusing mainly on demographic and personal factors of the individuals involved. In particular, research has targeted factors among adolescents, who account for a majority of cyber bullying cases. Nonetheless, it is important that other populations are studied as well — including adults, where cyber bullying may be less common — so that previous findings can be properly evaluated. Several personal factors linked to adolescent cyber bullying, such as level of self-esteem, have been noted to change as individuals age (Obins et al., 2002). It is therefore necessary to examine whether such factors remain linked to cyber bullying across groups of different ages. Moreover, while research on cyber bullying among adults is growing, it has largely been limited to identifying individuals as either cyber victims or cyber bullies (Zachilli & Valerio, 2011). By contrast, most research on adolescents distinguishes among various cyber bullying identities, which allows for a richer understanding of the behavior. This paper discusses four cyber identities — cyber bully, cyber victim, non-involved, and cyber bully/victim — among young adults, and explores how self-esteem is connected to each of the four identities (Brack & Caltabiano, 2014).

Smith et al. (2008) broadly describe cyber bullying as an intentional aggressive act carried out by an individual or group through electronic means, repeated over a period of time against a victim who cannot easily defend themselves (p. 366). This description parallels the definition given to traditional offline bullying and consists of three components that differentiate bullying from acts such as assault and harassment (Sevcikova & Smahel, 2009). Specifically, a bullying act must involve aggression, an identifiable power imbalance between the victim and the bully, and repetition over a given period of time (Newey & Magson, 2010). Nonetheless, applying this definition to cyber bullying raises questions about whether cyber bullying is simply an extension of traditional offline bullying sharing the same components (Beran & Li, 2005), or whether it is distinctly different with its own unique characteristics (Ybarra et al., 2007). Despite these debates, there is general agreement on the range of methods and activities associated with cyber bullying (Brack & Caltabiano, 2014).

Cyber bullying can occur across several technological platforms, including email, social media, text messaging, instant messaging, pictures and videos taken through phones and webcams, internet forums, chat rooms, and the comment sections of various websites (Smith et al., 2006). Further, cyber bullying is not limited to sending insulting or hurtful messages. It encompasses a range of behaviors, from revealing sensitive information about another person to creating a fake persona in order to obtain information or humiliate someone (Willard, 2005). Research also shows that there are many identities in cyber bullying beyond just cyber victims and cyber bullies. A number of identities — sometimes called typologies — describe the various roles individuals play in cyber bullying situations (Brack & Caltabiano, 2014).

The idea that different kinds of bullies exist was first introduced by Olweus (1997), who suggested that bullying should be evaluated on a scale that accounts for various groups of bullies, bystanders, and victims. The use of typology in classifying bullying has evolved since Olweus's initial categorization. It is now widely recognized in the literature that four types of people are involved in cyber bullying: pure cyber victims, pure cyber bullies, cyber bully/victims, and those who have been neither cyber bullied nor cyber bullies themselves (Florell & Wygant, 2013; Kowalski et al., 2013). Several studies have reported significant overlap between cyber victimization and cyber bullying compared to other aspects of offline bullying. While there is limited explanation for this in the literature, it is logical that certain characteristics of the cyber bully/victim group may encourage greater involvement in cyber bullying (Brack & Caltabiano, 2014).

Estimates of cyber bullying prevalence vary widely. Some studies report that 20–40% of school-age children and adolescents have experienced cyber bullying as a victim (Tokunaga, 2010), while approximately 2–21% have reported being cyber bullies themselves (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). Although it has been suggested that cyber bullying decreases as people age (Sevcikova & Smahel, 2009), evidence indicates that cyber bullying increases among adolescents and then declines as they mature (Slonje & Smith, 2008). Studies involving adults have used different methodologies (Zachilli & Valerio, 2011) or have included much broader age ranges (Sevcikova & Smahel, 2009) compared to adolescent samples, making it difficult to evaluate these trends. For instance, among non-adolescents, Sevcikova and Smahel (2009) found that only 10.7% reported being cyber bullied in the workplace. Regarding cyber bullying perpetration, Zachilli and Valerio (2011) reported that only 3.6% of college students acknowledged involvement in a form of bullying at college, while approximately 20% of the broader adult sample reported cyber bullying behavior, with most being under 35. Although research on adult cyber bullying remains limited, it is clear that findings vary considerably across studies (Brack & Caltabiano, 2014).

The use of the term "bully" has a long history, traceable to the 1530s (Harper, 2008). At its core, bullying involves an intimidator and a victim. The victim is abused verbally, physically, or through other means so that the bully gains a sense of power and superiority. The actions may be direct — such as face-to-face assault or hitting — or indirect, such as spreading gossip and rumors (Donegan, 2012).

Background on Cyber Bullying

Survival is an instinctual drive common to all organisms. It is linked to competition given the large number of species and the limited resources available. From the beginning, organisms have instinctively competed to outperform others in order to survive, and this instinct has persisted through the evolution of the species. Competition and the survival instinct can be identified in economic, social, and educational contexts. While competitive hierarchies are common across many societies, they differ according to each society's traditions, ethical values, and degree of governmental control. The capitalistic environment in the United States has advanced the idea that wealth and success are inseparable, and this mindset has contributed to bullying being unwittingly instilled as a survival tactic from childhood (Donegan, 2012).

From the moment a child in America enters grade school, he or she is encouraged to be the best they can be. While this message may be well-intentioned, it can become distorted as children progress through their education. Some students adopt corrupt strategies to get ahead in a competitive academic and social environment. Bullying may be one such strategy — for example, pressuring peers to share answers to assignments in order to achieve better grades and gain admission to better colleges. These tactics are dangerous because when a student discovers they are effective, he or she may build a lifestyle around them. Habitual bullying can have negative effects on many people and may even contribute to corrupt behavior in the workplace (Donegan, 2012).

Advances in technology are generally associated with human progress. Critical innovations such as the internet have transformed the way humans interact. While these technologies bring many advantages, some people exploit them for selfish purposes that are harmful to others. This is evident in the evolution of bullying into the online realm. Cyber bullying differs from traditional bullying in that the bully can hide their identity. This anonymity allows offenders to attack victims without witnessing their physical reactions, and the resulting distance often emboldens offenders to act more cruelly than they would in a face-to-face encounter (Donegan, 2012).

As technology has evolved, bullying has increased. The advent of the internet and its associated communication tools has provided bullies with new avenues to target others (Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). AOL Instant Messenger supplemented chat rooms, and internet forums gave young people a space in which to harass one another. These forums and chat rooms allowed people to spend hours communicating privately online, often about topics of common interest — including gossip (Donegan, 2012).

The invention of the mobile phone approximately half a century ago fundamentally changed communication (Shiels, 2003). However, ownership was initially limited. It was not until the 1990s, with the arrival of second-generation mobile phones, that ownership expanded dramatically to the point where the majority of people today own a mobile device. Research indicates that one in three teenagers sends approximately 3,000 text messages per month (Lenhart, 2010). While many parents believe mobile phones are purchased to keep their children safe, several teens have admitted to using their phones to cyber bully others (Donegan, 2012).

The growth of the internet also brought the proliferation of websites and, eventually, social media. MySpace launched the era of social networking as we know it today. Users create profiles on social media platforms to interact with both friends and adversaries. Publishing personal information online in this way gives others access to aspects of an individual's life that would typically remain private, and this exposure can be exploited by bullies. Cyber bullying is prevalent on platforms such as Facebook and Google+ (Donegan, 2012).

Anonymous blogging has become another tool used by cyber bullies and has emerged as a subject of ethical debate. Sites such as Juicy Campus and College ACB allowed users to post anonymous comments, giving bullies a forum to target their peers. Some very harsh topics could be discussed on these sites, ranging from categories like "Worst Hookup" to "Most Attractive." In some cases, a specific person's name became the focus of a post, with insults directed at that individual published beneath it. These represent some of the most extreme forms of cyber bullying seen to date (Donegan, 2012).

Almost everyone has been involved in some form of teasing or bullying — whether as a victim, an aggressor, or a bystander. Bullying is often a deeply personal topic because it can remind those involved of a painful experience from their past or present. However, it is critical to draw a clear distinction between teasing and bullying. When a child reports a conflict at school, it is important for parents and educators to determine whether the behavior constitutes bullying or teasing. Friends typically tease without the behavior being repeated in a harmful pattern. Bullying, by contrast, is repetitive. A teaser will often stop when asked to. Additionally, some behavior is simply rude rather than bullying — for example, pointing out an embarrassing detail about someone in front of others is rude but does not necessarily constitute bullying. Children should be helped to understand these distinctions. Other behavior may be mean — deliberately intended to hurt — driven by frustration or anger, but still may not rise to the level of bullying ("When Teasing Turns," n.d.).

Bullying and Teasing

Meanness, rudeness, and teasing generally occur between friends or social equals. Teasing does not typically target characteristics outside a person's control, such as religion, race, or disability. While rudeness can cause emotional pain, it is a problem that can be resolved through communication — by involving parents, teachers, or other responsible adults. In severe cases, consequences should be attached to the behavior. If the behavior persists, it may be characterized as bullying or harassment ("When Teasing Turns," n.d.).

To determine whether a behavior constitutes bullying, three components must be present. Using technology to satisfy any of these components qualifies as cyber bullying.

1. Repetition: The behavior must be repeated, whether targeting the same individual or different individuals. A pattern of behavior must be established. An isolated incident does not constitute bullying, and it is important that adults avoid becoming jaded so that proper characterization can be made.

2. Power imbalance: There must be an imbalance of power. This exists when a person believes they are unable to protect themselves from another person's actions or words. Critically, this definition refers to the victim's perception, not the aggressor's intention.

3. Intent: The behavior must be intentional — there must be a clear intent to hurt, mock, exclude, or embarrass the victim. All three components must be present for a behavior to be classified as bullying. Using an online platform to fulfill these criteria constitutes cyber bullying.