This paper surveys key turning points in East Asian civilizations, focusing on China and Korea from the eighteenth century through the mid-twentieth century. It examines how British opium trade and military superiority forced China into Unequal Treaties, including the Treaty of Nanjing and the Treaty of Tianjin, and how the resulting decline of the Qing Dynasty was compounded by internal rebellions such as the Taiping Rebellion and the White Lotus uprisings. The paper also covers the Sino-Japanese War and its geopolitical consequences, the March 1st Movement in Korea as resistance to Japanese colonialism, and China's Civil War, tracing the rise of the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong and the Long March of 1934–1936.
The growing British demand for Chinese tea, silk, and ceramics created a severe trade imbalance for Britain. The British were losing their silver reserves in exchange for Chinese goods. In the late eighteenth century, the government of Great Britain found opium as a solution for resolving this trade imbalance. Opium, which is more addictive than tea, was supplied to China by British merchants. As demand for opium increased in China, British imports rose accordingly, and silver bullion began flowing out of China and into Britain.
The Chinese government (the Qing government) took serious steps to stop the opium trade. Lin Zexu, appointed as Imperial Commissioner for the Destruction of Opium, launched an anti-opium campaign during which opium stores were destroyed and opium dealers were arrested. This action by the Qing government was unacceptable to the British, and two wars were fought as a result — wars known in the history of Chinese civilization as the Opium Wars.
Due to inferior military technology, China suffered defeat in both wars and was compelled to sign a series of Unequal Treaties. The Treaty of Nanjing, signed in 1842, required China to pay Britain for losses incurred during the First Opium War, to open five additional ports to foreign trade, to grant extraterritoriality to British citizens in China, and to cede Hong Kong to Britain. In June 1858, China signed another treaty, the Treaty of Tianjin, which required China to open further ports to foreign trade, permit foreign legations in Beijing, allow Christian missionaries to operate, and grant legal status to the importation of opium.
The period during which these treaties were signed became known as the "Era of Unequal Treaties," in which China granted extensive concessions to Western powers and was forced to accept the importation of opium.
The Sino-Japanese War was a conflict between Japan and China for dominance over Korea. Japan gained influence over Taiwan and the Korean Peninsula (Paine). When Western powers demanded that Japan restrict its territorial ambitions and relinquish its claim to Liaodong, Japan refused and instead planned a war against Russia to acquire further territory. After the Sino-Japanese War, the global balance of power shifted dramatically. China, which had long dominated the region and was among the earliest developers of military technology, saw its position severely weakened, while Japan rose to the status of a world power.
The war also transformed Russia. Russian foreign policy was redirected away from Europe and toward Asia, and Japan came to be regarded as a major threat to the Siberian frontier. Japan also planned to route the Trans-Siberian Railway directly through Manchuria in order to shorten the link between Lake Baikal and Vladivostok.
"Korean uprising against Japanese colonial oppression"
In the mid-eighteenth century, China was at the peak of its power and influence. During the same period, however, conflicts and tensions arose that resulted in wars between China and European powers, gradually dismantling the strength of the Qing Dynasty. Europeans were deeply frustrated by the trade restrictions China imposed on them and exerted persistent pressure to have those restrictions lifted. The Opium Wars were a direct consequence of the strict trade barriers China imposed on European merchants (Wallbank, Taylor, and Bailkey). These wars weakened China and enabled Europe's technological advancement; ultimately, Europe drew power from the collapse of the Qing Dynasty.
The British East India Company, established in 1600 by royal charter, dominated much of Europe's trade and occupied a significant share of maritime commerce in Asia. The Company sought direct trade relations with China, but the Chinese government was reluctant to agree. In 1699, China finally permitted the British East India Company to trade directly, and the Company subsequently established its first trading post at Canton. Britain's primary imports from China were tea and silk. Tea exports to Britain became so significant that by 1700, approximately 60% of Britain's total trade with China consisted of tea alone. Silk and porcelain also became prized Chinese exports. In return, China demanded silver, which created a serious problem for Britain as its silver reserves steadily flowed to China in payment for these goods.
The growing presence of foreigners in China alarmed the Qing government, which imposed severe restrictions on the movement of British merchants. In 1760, only a single port — Canton — remained open to foreign merchants. Additional restrictions required merchants to reside in Canton only between October and March and to visit the city no more than three times per month. Direct trade between British merchants and ordinary Chinese civilians was also prohibited. The Canton system created a significant trade imbalance: demand for Chinese goods (tea, silk, and porcelain) was high, while demand for European goods was low, causing a sustained outflow of silver from Europe to China.
The Macartney Mission of 1793 and the Amherst Mission of 1816 were both dispatched by Europeans in hopes of loosening China's trade restrictions, but neither succeeded in convincing China to liberalize its trade terms. When all diplomatic efforts failed, Britain turned to opium as a means of correcting the trade imbalance. Opium, more addictive than tea, was exported to China by British merchants. Millions of Chinese became seriously addicted to the drug, demand surged rapidly, and silver began flowing out of China and into Europe — thus reversing the earlier imbalance and initiating the opium trade between the two countries.
The Qing government eventually became aware of the opium trade and its destructive effects on Chinese society. Crime, moral decay, and social irresponsibility spread among large numbers of the population. This prompted the government to act decisively. Lin Zexu, appointed as Imperial Commissioner for the Destruction of Opium, launched an anti-opium campaign in which opium stores were destroyed and dealers arrested. This action proved unacceptable to Britain, and two Opium Wars followed.
China suffered greatly in both Opium Wars and was forced to sign the Unequal Treaties described above. The Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and the Treaty of Tianjin (1858), along with several other agreements, are collectively referred to as the Unequal Treaties.
"White Lotus, Taiping, and other internal rebellions"
"CCP formation, Mao Zedong, and the Long March"
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