East Asian Cultural Transformation Since the 1860s

Introduction: East Asia Meets the West

The nineteenth century brought a great deal of challenge and impending change for East Asia. Power was escalating in the West, and the Japanese and Chinese governments were compelled to open trade to foreign countries.¹ According to historians, the presence of foreigners in much of Japan and China was far from short-lived, particularly toward the end of the century. While other Asian societies were reportedly less successful, both China and Japan were said to have maintained their national identity and independence against the influence of the West in many areas — though in other areas they did adopt certain Westernized practices.² Japan, for example, adopted customs, spoils-of-war ideology, and institutions historically associated with the West.³ China, by contrast, had less success: Western influence reportedly served to undermine the foundations of the Qing dynasty and ultimately bring it to an end.⁴

By the 1870s, the ruling dynasty had begun to disintegrate from within, and because of the weakened state of the nation, Chinese leaders turned to Western technology in hopes of combining it with the institutions and principles of Confucianism.⁵ "East for Essence, West for Practical Use" became the leading standard for domestic and foreign Chinese policy for approximately twenty-five years. Great Britain was also looked to as a model for reform considerations in China.⁶

The reformer Wang Tao captured the appeal of the British model in terms that resonated with Chinese classical ideals:

"The real strength of England…lies in the fact that there is a sympathetic understanding between the governing and the governed, a close relationship between the ruler and the people…My observation is that the daily domestic political life of England actually embodies the traditional ideals of our ancient Golden Age" (Wang Tao, as quoted in Duiker and Spielvogel, 2011).

China Under Pressure: Reform and Resistance

Not everyone was amenable to proposed reforms. The counterargument was put forward by figures such as Zhang Zhidong, as quoted in Duiker and Spielvogel (2011):

"The doctrine of people's rights will bring us not a single benefit but a hundred evils. Are we going to establish a parliament?…Even supposing the confused and clamorous people are assembled in one house, for every one of them who is clear-sighted, there will be a hundred others whose vision is beclouded; they will converse at random and talk as if in a dream — what use will it be?" (p. 6).

China's defeat in the Opium War at the hands of the British led to greater British penetration of the country. A reform effort at the end of the nineteenth century and a push by the United States for an Open Door policy were considered helpful but failed to suppress the internal Boxer Rebellion, whose participants were responding to intense unemployment and the devastating effects of a severe drought.⁷ The old order collapsed, and the West penetrated China in even more significant ways. Western technology and methods of manufacturing were adopted by the Chinese, particularly in the production of weapons and in shipbuilding.⁸

The Imperialist era in the latter half of the nineteenth century created significant disparities in the local economy that propelled major changes in the century to come. Many argued that the presence of the West served to accelerate China's economic development, and that because the West was among the most advanced societies, China stood to benefit significantly. The roles of women also changed during this period: women began to seek employment outside the home, and access to education for women expanded as well.

Japan Opens Its Doors and Enters the World Stage

There was also a breaking down of the isolated nature that Japan had maintained for many centuries. In the early 1900s, foreign powers began to approach Japan about opening its doors, and the United States was the first to be considered successful in this endeavor.⁹ The decision was not entirely popular, and there was significant internal conflict over the question of opening the country to foreigners. Nevertheless, American influence penetrated Japan in ways that would permanently alter the nation's character.

Several significant wars shaped East Asia and its culture during this period. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, considered part of Chinese territory.¹⁰ During the same period, China remained in a state of disorganization and was sinking deeper into poverty. In an effort to achieve national unification, Marxism was adopted in the early 1900s. That same era brought significant economic advantages to Japan from World War I, which removed much of Western industrial competition and eliminated a significant rival. Yet there was a strong reaction against all of the war and fighting — one voiced chiefly by academics, students, and those of a liberal persuasion.¹¹

Conclusion: A Region in Perpetual Transition

The transition in East Asia has reached a degree of equilibrium; however, national identity and unification remain goals that the region continues to pursue. The long arc of transformation — from the forced opening of trade in the 1860s through the ideological upheavals of the twentieth century — demonstrates that East Asia's encounter with modernity has been neither simple nor uniform, but deeply contested at every stage.