First vs. Second Language Acquisition: A Contrastive Analysis
This paper examines the key differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition through the lens of contrastive analysis. It traces the theoretical foundations of the field, from behaviorist habit-formation models and Skinner's operant conditioning to Chomsky's cognitive challenge and the concept of Universal Grammar. The paper also discusses the role of language transfer—both positive and negative—in second language learning, and introduces the Chomskyan and Greenbergian approaches to understanding interlanguage. The discussion highlights why a contrastive understanding of both language types is valuable for educators and learners of second languages.
- Introduction: Why comparing L1 and L2 acquisition matters
- Contrastive Analysis: Behaviorist roots and Chomsky's cognitive challenge
- Universal Grammar in Interlanguage: Chomskyan and Greenbergian approaches compared
- Transfer: Positive and negative transfer in L2 learning
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What makes this paper effective
- Traces the theoretical evolution of language acquisition research in a logical sequence, moving from behaviorism to cognitive linguistics.
- Clearly distinguishes between positive and negative language transfer, providing practical relevance for language teaching contexts.
- Introduces two competing Universal Grammar frameworks (Chomskyan and Greenbergian) concisely, giving readers a comparative lens.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates effective use of theoretical framing: it grounds each concept (transfer, Universal Grammar, interlanguage) within a named scholarly tradition, then contrasts competing positions. Citing Skinner, Chomsky, and Greenberg in sequence shows how the field evolved through debate rather than consensus.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens with an introduction establishing why comparing first and second language acquisition matters to teachers and learners. It then develops the concept of contrastive analysis and its behaviorist roots before explaining how Chomsky's cognitive critique shifted the paradigm. A dedicated section addresses Universal Grammar and its two main approaches. The final section introduces the concept of transfer, serving as a bridge to deeper analysis.
Introduction
A native language is learnt successfully and naturally by children, without any particular difficulty (Rui, Van, and Jin, 2014). Children of all cultures acquire their native languages at some point in life, given a suitable linguistic environment with adequate language input and output. However, many children learning second languages report difficulties that did not arise when learning their first language. They are often perplexed by their inability to understand or accurately and fluently use a second language, despite striving for years to learn it. It is frequently speculated whether second or target language learners can replicate the process by which they acquired their first language. A contrastive study of first and second language acquisition is therefore of great significance to those who teach and learn second languages (Rui, Van, and Jin, 2014).
Contrastive Analysis
The central idea of contrastive analysis was the construction of structural "images" of two languages, followed by a direct comparison between them (Ermira, 2013). By "mapping" one particular system onto another, differences and similarities can be identified. Ascertaining these differences can facilitate a clearer understanding of the problems faced by second language learners. Interference may arise from structurally dissimilar areas of the two languages. This term denotes any native language influence that may impact second language acquisition. The concept of transfer originates here, with a distinction drawn between negative and positive transfer. The former occurs when there is dissonance between the first and second language, making second language acquisition more challenging and time-consuming due to the "newness" of the second language's structure. The latter occurs when the first language aligns with the second language, making the acquisition process considerably easier (Ermira, 2013).
These concepts were crucial in contrastive analysis, reflecting a fundamentally behaviorist language learning model, which described language acquisition in terms of habit formation. Language acquisition — most certainly first language acquisition — was explained in a manner identical to Skinner's 1957 interpretation of laboratory tests on rats, wherein negative and positive stimuli prompted specific "learned" behaviors. The widespread acceptance of these views in the 1950s and 1960s inspired the Audio-lingual teaching method, which involved extensive drilling to inculcate the necessary "habits." Errors were regarded as undesirable deviations from the standard and as flawed output resulting from otherwise flawless input.
Chomsky (1959) challenged Skinner's behaviorist account of learning, proposing a more cognitive approach to language acquisition that incorporated a language acquisition device — a mechanism reserved solely for producing and processing language, and not connected to other cognitive activity. Furthermore, Chomsky postulated that "language universals," accessible to all, exist innately in humans. This notion was exceptionally significant and called Audio-lingual practices into question (Ermira, 2013).
It was subsequently argued that language was not merely a matter of habit formation; rather, it possesses a developmental course and a natural agenda of its own. Certain aspects of vocabulary learning may abide by behaviorist principles; however, a key counter-behaviorist observation is that children produce words such as "falled" or "runned," which they could not possibly have overheard from those around them. Chomsky contended that children perceived regularities and constructed language rules rather than simply emulating others. Notably, language came to be regarded as structure-dependent, primarily generative, and rule-governed (Ermira, 2013).
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