Forensic Pathology: History, Role, and Criminal Justice Use

Introduction

Forensic pathology is a field in criminology and medical jurisprudence that focuses on the study of a corpse to determine evidence that can be used in criminal justice or to establish the cause of death. The postmortem conducted by a forensic pathologist serves as the primary source of information for the autopsy report generated at the conclusion of the investigation. Having trained previously in anatomical pathology, the forensic pathologist is able to determine the cause of death by examining the body and identifying the process by which the person died. This paper discusses forensic pathology in detail and demonstrates how it is of use in criminal justice.

Meaning of the Terms

The history of forensic pathology is rooted in its terminology. As Choo and Choi (2012) point out, "forensic" comes from the Latin term forum, which means "public." Pathology is Greek in its origins and refers to suffering; thus, pathology by itself is the study of illness. Today, the term pathologist refers "to a physician who identifies, interprets, and diagnoses changes caused by disease in tissues and body fluids, either before or after death" (Choo & Choi, 2012, p. 20). Its historical terminology, however, indicates that as a science it was concerned with matters of public inquiry related to illness or suffering. Moreover, the main practice associated with forensic science—autopsy—stems from another Greek word meaning "to see for oneself" (Choo & Choi, 2012, p. 16). In forensic pathology, a forensic autopsy is conducted at the request of the state "to satisfy the law in special circumstances such as suspicious death" (Choo & Choi, 2012, p. 16). Thus, forensic pathology today is part of a public process of identifying whether a crime was committed in conjunction with the death of an individual.

Forensic Pathology Throughout History

Autopsy has always been interconnected with anatomy and the study of medicine. In ancient cultures, however—such as those of Babylon and Asia—dissection of the human body was forbidden based on religious beliefs; it was considered an act of desecration (Newell, 1995). Some exceptions to this rule can be found: the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all understood the uses of pathologic anatomy and engaged in dissection as a matter of scientific inquiry, but there was still little use of forensic pathology specifically (Prayson, 2007). In the Middle Ages, human dissection was not even permitted until the 13th century. In Asia, Muslim communities had by then already begun developing forensic pathology techniques. Song Ci published the first book on postmortem examination in 1247, containing descriptions of "illustrated methods to use during the investigation of suspicious deaths and other forensic issues such as poisoning, decomposition, wounds from various weapons, strangulation, and fake wounds" (Choo & Choi, 2012, p. 17).

In Europe, the written record on forensic pathology did not begin until the 1500s, when Italian scholars started teaching courses on anatomy, dissection, and forensic medicine. Benivieni published The Hidden Causes of Diseases in 1507, and later that same century, German courts had made provision for requiring the testimony of medical experts to determine the cause of death in cases of murder, infanticide, and abortion (Choo & Choi, 2012). By the end of the 16th century and into the 17th, forensic pathology was therefore a respected field of science in both the East and the West.

The founder of modern autopsy is considered to be Morgagni, whose work was highly influential in directing the field. His contributions led William and John Hunter to teach pathology in England, and by the end of the 18th century, Guy's Hospital in London was regularly conducting postmortem examinations (Finkbeiner, Ursell & Davis, 2009). As technology advanced, it was incorporated into the field with great appreciation. Virchow in Germany, for instance, is hailed as the father of pathology for being the first to use the microscope in pathological inquiries (Choo & Choi, 2012). By the end of the 19th century, all laboratory students had access to microscopes, and by the 1920s the study of forensic pathology was being used by law enforcement, with the first crime lab constructed in Los Angeles during the era of Prohibition. A decade later, the FBI "made forensic sciences available on a nationwide basis for the first time in the United States" (Choo & Choi, 2012, p. 18). Under the FBI, forensic pathology became a staple of criminal justice in the U.S.

Conclusion

Forensic pathology is a discipline that has existed in at least a rudimentary form for thousands of years. The ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans practiced forms of pathology through the dissection of human bodies and the study of human anatomy. The first books specifically on forensic pathology, however, were not published until the modern era, and these helped to establish the field and demonstrate its usefulness in criminal justice. In the U.S., forensic science was identified by the FBI in the early 20th century as having considerable value in assisting criminal investigations. Over the decades, numerous cases have shown that forensic pathologists play a serious role in determining the cause and manner of death, which in turn determines whether a case proceeds to investigation. For this reason, forensic pathology is a vital aspect of criminal justice today and will remain so for as long as science plays a part in the pursuit of justice.