Evolution of Criminal Investigation Research and Forensic Science

Introduction to Criminal Investigation

Criminal investigation plays a crucial role in law enforcement in relation to the arrest, prosecution, and conviction of criminals. A criminal investigator can be described as an individual who collects, records, and analyzes evidence and information related to a criminal offense. The main goal of criminal investigation is to discover the truth regarding the events and processes that contributed to the occurrence of a criminal offense. Generally, the investigative process has four major objectives: establishing the occurrence of an offense, identifying and arresting the suspect, recovering stolen property, and facilitating the prosecution of those involved in the offense.

Criminal investigation is a profession and practice that has evolved considerably over time due to numerous efforts to enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement. This paper examines the evolution of criminal investigation research in light of the developments that have taken place in this field, including a discussion of its history, a definition of the criminal investigation process, and an analysis of how forensic science, DNA analysis, and fingerprinting have developed into crucial tools in criminal investigation research.

History of Criminal Investigation

The history of criminal investigation can be traced back to the 18th century in England, during a period characterized by considerable political, economic, and social changes (Swanson, Chamelin, Territo, & Taylor, 2012, p. 2). These various changes were crucial to the development of the first contemporary detective force, known as the Bow Street Runners. These factors in turn resulted in the eventual development of police organizations and criminal investigations in America. Notably, there are two major changes that took place in the 18th century: an industrial revolution and an agricultural revolution. These revolutions provided the basis for a process of change that significantly impacted how law enforcement services were delivered and investigations were carried out. The increase in incidents of crime during this period forced police officers to enforce drastic measures.

Even though the Bow Street Runners were the leading police organization in England during this period, they were soon faced with several challenges that led to a reputation for inefficiency and incompetence.

Another significant event in the history of criminal investigation took place in the 19th century, when technology in crime detection began to flourish through the creation of the Bertillon system, a personal identification system devised by Alphonse Bertillon. This system was based on the notion that certain aspects of the human body remained the same after an individual had attained complete physical maturity. It mainly worked through a combination of photographs with consistent physical measurements (Morn, 2000, p. 3).

A third development in criminal investigation occurred in the mid-1840s, when the study of fingerprint patterns became a prominent means of identifying suspects in criminal offenses. While the use of fingerprints is widespread in modern police agencies, it was not until the late 19th century that it was discovered that an individual's fingerprints could serve as a distinctive, unchangeable method of personal identification. The discovery of fingerprinting's application in criminal investigation has been credited to Henry Faulds and William J. Herschel, who worked in Asia during this period.

In the past few decades, criminal investigation has evolved to include increased use of forensic psychology and forensic science in the investigation of criminal offenses. Forensic science is a field that draws from diverse disciplines such as biology, geology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics to examine physical evidence associated with crime. Because it draws from multiple disciplines, forensic science employs various professionals in the investigation process depending on the nature of the criminal offense. For instance, if an individual has allegedly died from poisoning, a toxicologist can assist in the investigation, since he or she specializes in identifying poisons and their physiological effects on humans and animals (Swanson et al., 2012, p. 2). Other professions that assist in criminal investigations through forensic science include forensic pathology, botany, archaeology, and entomology.

In the United States, the creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1924 is arguably the single most significant development in the evolution of criminal investigation. While it emerged in 1907 as the Bureau of Investigation for the Justice Department, the FBI had relatively few responsibilities in its early years. It gained greater responsibilities and notoriety when new federal laws regarding interstate transportation of stolen automobiles were enacted. As corruption and political interference were eliminated from the agency, the FBI reduced the number of its nationwide agents, closed certain field offices, and raised qualification standards for its personnel. Today, the Federal Bureau of Investigation is one of several federal investigative agencies that have made considerable efforts toward professionalizing and enhancing the effectiveness of criminal investigation.

The Role of Forensic Science in Investigation Research

Criminal investigation research is the systematic and thorough process geared toward bringing someone to justice — that is, incarcerating, prosecuting, and convicting criminals (O'Connor, 2006). Research has emerged as an important element in criminal investigations, much as it has in other aspects of criminal justice. The incorporation of research into criminal investigations has been driven by the changing nature of criminal activity and the evolving role of the investigator. These factors have contributed to the inclusion of research in the criminal investigation field to enhance the effectiveness of the investigation process in the arrest, prosecution, and conviction of criminals.

The evolution of criminal investigation research has been anchored primarily in the incorporation of modern forensic science into the criminal investigation process during the last quarter of the 19th century. The use of forensic science methods has conventionally been centered on more serious offenses such as homicide and rape. However, in recent years, forensic science techniques have increasingly been applied to volume offenses such as vehicle crime and burglary. While the proportion of volume crime offenses detected through these methods has historically been low, they have been used to corroborate evidence against known criminals as well as to identify unknown offenders (Bradbury & Feist, 2005).

Forensic science originated in Europe and draws from a range of disciplines, making it a critical component of criminal investigation research. The field has grown considerably in recent decades, giving rise to numerous sub-disciplines. One example is forensic pathology, which is used to help identify the cause of death through analysis of a corpse. Criminal investigators utilize these varying branches of forensic science to collect and analyze important information and evidence that may result in the arrest, prosecution, and conviction of known and unknown offenders. Although forensic science in criminal investigation research may appear to enjoy periods of stability, it is in fact both dynamic and in constant progress.

Conclusion

Criminal investigation research has evolved over time due to ongoing developments in the criminal investigation process. These developments have been driven by social, political, and economic changes that occur from time to time. Criminal investigation research has evolved to include the use of DNA, fingerprinting, and other methods in order to enhance the process of identifying both known and unknown criminals and securing their subsequent conviction. As forensic tools and investigative methodologies continue to advance, the field of criminal investigation research will remain a cornerstone of effective law enforcement.

References

Bradbury, S., & Feist, A. (2005). The use of forensic science in volume crime investigations: A review of the research literature. Home Office Online Report.

Morn, F. (2000). Foundations of criminal investigation (chap. 1, pp. 1–18). Pearson Higher Education.

O'Connor, T. (2006, September 30). An overview of criminal investigation. Retrieved November 10, 2014.

Osterburg, J. W., & Ward, R. H. (2014). Criminal investigation: A method for reconstructing the past (7th ed.). Routledge.

Swanson, C. R., Chamelin, N. C., Territo, L., & Taylor, B. (2012). The evolution of criminal investigation and forensic science. In Criminal investigation (11th ed., pp. 1–16). McGraw-Hill.