Gang Formation, Membership, and Community Prevention Strategies

Introduction to Gang Violence and Membership

A far greater number of US citizens become victims of gang-initiated violence than of mass shootings or terrorist attacks. Gang members contribute to a disproportionately high percentage of the violence and crime witnessed across the nation. Roughly two thousand gang-linked murders are reported across the country per year, accounting for 13% of all murders nationally. America's gang-connected murder rate alone — approximately 2 for every 100,000 individuals — exceeds the overall murder rate of nearly every nation in the EU (Pyrooz & Densley, 2018). The FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) claims that as many as 33,000 motorcycle gangs, prison gangs, and aggressive street gangs are currently offending across the country (FBI, n.d.), several of them being highly organized and sophisticated. They all resort to violence to maintain control over localities and to boost illicit commercial activities such as theft, firearms trafficking, illegal drug trafficking, human trafficking, fraud, and prostitution. Innumerable gang members continue to perpetrate offenses even after being imprisoned.

Gangs are composed of different kinds of members, including leaders or core members, regular members or associates, fringe or peripheral members, and recruits or "wannabe" members. A gang's core may be considered its inner circle, governing the level and fundamental nature of gang activity. Core members are typically engaged in delinquency and offending to a far greater extent than fringe members. Key attributes of gangs include violence, group organization, symbolism, territoriality, leadership, and repeated interaction (Finelli, 2019). The longer an individual remains with a gang, the more serious the offenses he or she commits. Gang members usually enter through perpetrating an offense or via an initiation process in which other members beat them to gauge their fighting capacity and bravery (Hesketh, 2019).

While there are various motivations for entering gangs, they typically fall into the following categories:

Recognition or Identity: Belonging to a gang confers a kind of status on the individual that is not experienced outside of gang culture.

Brotherhood and Fellowship: Most members view their gang as family, seeking companionship that is often absent in their actual domestic environment. Several older relatives or siblings are, or previously were, part of the gang.

Protection: Some individuals enter gangs simply for protection from rival gang violence in their locality. Gang membership provides support in the event of a violent attack and ensures retribution for any transgression.

Criminal Activity: Some enter to engage in drug trade or consumption and to profit from gang protection and trade earnings.

Intimidation: Some are coerced into joining when their membership is deemed to contribute positively to the gang's criminal activities. Others enter for the purpose of intimidating community members who are not part of any gang (Hesketh, 2019; LAPD, 2020).

Literature Review on Gang Formation and Functioning

The following studies represent the most relevant research on gang formation and gang functioning, examining the social, psychological, and structural factors that shape gang membership and behavior.

Hesketh (2019)

Hesketh's (2018) research on street gangs aimed to determine a key element of why disenfranchised youth are drawn to them. The study attempted to discern differences between young people who chose to join a street gang and those who did not, within the Merseyside region of England. Economic hardship and societal marginalization were identified as factors contributing to growing institutional inequality among Merseyside youth. Consequently, a large number of males aged between 18 and 25 perceived themselves as powerless and lacking ambition or identity. Gaining entry into a gang thus became a means of reclaiming control over their lives through risky, offensive, or delinquent conduct, as well as a way of acquiring the identity of a "bad" boy — one that offered intrinsic pleasure and a criminally seductive feeling. Young females were attracted to such individuals, excited by vicarious risk while continuing to abide by the law themselves. This research sheds light on a major and alarming socio-psychological motivator triggered by marginalization — an area that, according to the author, has largely been overlooked by risk-factor-centered interventions focused primarily on sociological positivism and rational choice theory.

Alleyne & Wood (2013)

This study examined the mental, behavioral, and societal factors linked to gang offenses. By comparing group offenses perpetrated by gang-involved and non-gang youth, the authors sought to identify the types of crimes committed by gangs and the distinguishing traits that set gang crimes apart from other group offenses. Gangs were found to use graffiti to demarcate territory and threats to intimidate others. High individual delinquency levels and the presence of gangs in the neighborhood proved to be major predictors of gang crime. Contrary to the authors' expectations, perceived social standing, negative attitudes toward authority, and moral disengagement were not initially predictive of gang-connected offending. However, additional analyses revealed that greater moral disengagement and perceived social standing significance did predict gang offenses, while negative attitudes toward authority served as a mediating factor. This study highlights the need for closer examination of the societal and psychological contributors to gang crime and membership.

Peterson, Carson & Fowler (2018)

This study gauged whether gangs' sexual composition is associated with gender differences in offending within a given sample, and whether the sexual makeup of gangs similarly structures male and female members' experiences of victimization. Study outcomes corroborated earlier findings of gender-based differences in gang member delinquency according to gang sexual composition, further suggesting parallel variations in member victimization. This research provides additional evidence for consideration of facilitating influences such as gender dynamics, normative orientation, and gang attributes in understanding gang-related behavior.

Higginson et al. (2018)

This systematic Campbell review explored predictors of youth gang enrollment in low- and middle-income countries, summarizing findings from eight reports covering the Caribbean and five other nations. The reviewed reports addressed the relationship between life circumstances and events and the probability of youth gang membership across five domains: family, individual, peers, educational institution, and community. Significant associations were discovered across all five domains. The study contributes evidence on the correlates of youth gang membership and identifies factors potentially influencing the decision to join gangs. It also recommends promising areas for intervention within family, community, and school settings, and provides a basis for further research. Gang membership and its correlates have increasingly been studied across both developed and developing countries, underscoring the global scope of the phenomenon.

Key Insights from the Literature

The literature review above facilitates an understanding of gangs, their formation, member initiation, membership maintenance, and the many activities that sustain them financially, symbolically, and competitively. Such insights help illuminate the depth of the security risks that gangs pose to non-members and to the broader community. Understanding the factors that lead to gang formation is crucial both for preventing their establishment and for dismantling existing gangs. Appropriate policies may then be developed to address a problem that threatens both societal wellbeing and public security.

References

Alleyne, E., & Wood, J. L. (2013). Gang-related crime: The social, psychological, and behavioral correlates. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(7), 611–627.

FBI. (n.d.). Gangs. Retrieved June 12, 2020, from https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/gangs

Finelli, G. A. (2019). Slash, shoot, kill: Gang recruitment of children, and the penalties gangs face. Family Court Review, 57(2), 243–257.

Hesketh, R. F. (2018). A critical exploration of why some individuals with similar backgrounds do or do not become involved in deviant street groups and the potential implications for their future life choices (Doctoral dissertation, United Kingdom).

Hesketh, R. F. (2019). Joining gangs: Living on the edge? Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, 5(4), 280–294.

Higginson, A., Benier, K., Shenderovich, Y., Bedford, L., Mazerolle, L., & Murray, J. (2018). Factors associated with youth gang membership in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1), 1–128.

Howell, J. C. (2010). Gang prevention: An overview of research and programs. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Klein, M. W. (1995). The American street gang: Its nature, prevalence, and control. Oxford University Press.

LAPD. (2020). Why young people join gangs. Retrieved from http://www.lapdonline.org/la_gangs/content_basic_view/23473

Manwaring, M. G. (2005). Street gangs: The new urban insurgency. Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College.

Peterson, D., Carson, D. C., & Fowler, E. (2018). What's sex (composition) got to do with it? The importance of sex composition of gangs for female and male members' offending and victimization. Justice Quarterly, 35(6), 941–976.

Phillips, S. A. (1999). Wallbangin': Graffiti and gangs in LA. University of Chicago Press.

Pyrooz, D. C., & Densley, J. (2018). Is gang activity on the rise? A movement to abolish gang databases makes it hard to tell. The Conversation.

Shelden, R. G., Tracy, S. K., & Brown, W. B. (2013). Youth gangs in American society. Nelson Education.

Yearwood, D. L., & Hayes, R. A. (2000). Perceptions of youth crime and youth gangs: A statewide systemic investigation. NC Criminal Justice Analysis Center, Governor's Crime Commission.