This paper examines gang membership and activity in the United States through historical development, current status, and community interventions. It traces gang emergence from the Northeast in the 1820s through regional expansion to the South by the 1960s, identifies four primary gang types (street gangs, prison gangs, neighborhood-based gangs, and outlaw motorcycle gangs), and analyzes contributing factors including economic instability, mental health issues, and family background. The paper documents gang impacts on public safety, drug trafficking, school environments, and government institutions, then proposes evidence-based community strategies including enhanced penalties, school programs, community policing, and public education initiatives to mitigate gang proliferation and violence.
The United States of America contains approximately 33,000 active violent motorcycle gangs, street gangs, and prison gangs. The total number of people or members associated with these gangs amounts to 1.4 million. A large number of these gangs engage in highly organized and sophisticated activities; however, regardless of their degree of sophistication, all of these gangs use violence to control their neighborhoods (Staff Members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2015; Staff Members of the National Gang Intelligence Center, 2012).
In addition to violence, these gangs also use coercion and power to establish and expand their illegal money-making operations, which may include drug and gun trafficking, robbery, fraud, prostitution rings, and extortion. As indicated by the 2011 National Gang Threat Assessment report, active gangs in the United States are responsible for approximately 48 percent of violent crimes in most jurisdictions, whereas in some jurisdictions this percentage ranges up to 90 percent (Staff Members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2015; Staff Members of the National Gang Intelligence Center, 2012).
This paper aims to analyze the current status, historical growth, and projected trends of gang membership in the United States. In addition, it examines current research on gang formation and the implications for society and community. Furthermore, the paper identifies and classifies the types of gangs common in various geographical and societal communities and their effects on social, educational, and criminal justice systems, including social services, health providers, police, courts, and schools. Moreover, the paper assesses various approaches, programs, and policies for responding to gang formation and activities and proposes recommendations for community response.
The formation of gangs did not follow a uniform pattern across the United States. The initial emergence of serious gangs was witnessed on the East Coast in the 1820s, which was led by New York City. The Midwestern region, specifically Chicago, and the Western regions, specifically Los Angeles, witnessed the development of gangs approximately half a century after the formation of gangs on the East Coast. The South region, on the other hand, did not see significant gang development for almost another half century, as gangs began to develop in this region during the 1960s (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
The emergence of first gang-like groups occurred in this region right after the end of the American Revolution, in 1783. These groups mainly consisted of White European immigrants, including English, Germans, and Irish. In 1820, serious ganging began in New York City, followed by the formulation of the first well-organized gang in Rosanna Peers' greengrocery's backroom (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
During the 1960s, the Chinese began setting up sophisticated tongs in this region. The situation worsened with the arrival of Poles, Italians, Austrians, and other immigrants between 1890 and 1930. The 1900s also witnessed the initiation of Black gangs and the proliferation of criminal networks into the regions of Manhattan, East Harlem, the Bronx, and southeastern Brooklyn (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
The first street gang in Chicago was developed in the 1860s by white immigrants and consisted of various ethnicities including Irish, German, and Lithuanian people. During the 1920s, gangs began to take root in patronage networks run by strong authorities and politicians, with the Al Capone gang being among the most popular (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
Following the 1919 race riot, gangs were formulated by Black males to counter hostile white gang members who terrorized the African American community. Mexican gangs were also formulated in the 1950s. The worst African American gang problem in Chicago exploded in 1960, leading to elevated rates of crime and violence (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
The 1890s witnessed the emergence of gangs consisting of members with Mexican ancestry in the western region of the United States, followed by the formation of the first Mexican American gangs in Los Angeles in the 1920s. The formulation and operations of Mexican American gangs were significantly shaped by two major events in Los Angeles: the Sleepy Lagoon murder and the zoot suit riots (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
There was a significant acceleration in Mexican immigration beginning in the 1950s. As a result, the well-established African American gangs in low-income housing projects began to assume positions as street gangs in Los Angeles. The Vietnam War, the Chicano movement, and the War on Poverty, which occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, also promoted and established the formulation and operations of Mexican gangs in Los Angeles (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
Populated areas across California witnessed the formulation and proliferation of gang networks by the 1970s. The roots and activities of gangs in the western region were further strengthened by the integration of crack cocaine dealing and consumption with gang culture in African American communities (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
The southern region of the United States did not witness any significant gang activity before the 1970s. Even after the 1970s, only Miami and San Antonio reported minimal gang activity. However, there was a sharp and evident increase in gang activities in the southern region by the 1980s. Consequently, by the end of the 20th century, the southern region matched other regions of the United States in the rate and intensity of gang activities, with Houston emerging as a new center for gang activities (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Howell & Griffiths, 2015).
In the present era, numerous violent and illegal crimes are committed by various gangs in the United States, which pose significant threats to public safety in many jurisdictions as these gangs continue to develop and proliferate criminal networks across the nation. Common crimes committed by gangs include robberies, threats, intimidations, and assault. The number of such crimes exceeds white-collar crimes such as credit card fraud and identity theft. Drug trafficking is also one of the most common crimes committed by gangs in the United States (Howell, Egley, Tita & Griffiths, 2011; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014).
The gang composition in the United States consists of approximately 88 percent street gang members, 2.5 percent outlaw motorcycle gang members, and 9.5 percent prison gang members. The most dangerous gangs in most jurisdictions are neighborhood-based gangs, while prison gangs pose the lowest amount of threat in most jurisdictions. However, although outlaw motorcycle gangs contribute only 2.5 percent to the entire gang composition, they pose severe threats in 11 percent of jurisdictions in the United States (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014).
There has been a notable increase in the migration of street gangs across various regions of the United States. The major reasons for this migration include increasing profits, enhancing drug distribution and trafficking, expanding into new territories, and searching for legal employment that can complement illegal income (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Business Insider Incorporation, 2012).
Street gang migration may also occur due to the transfer of an incarcerated gang leader to a new prison facility. The leader then orders subordinates to relocate into communities near the prison facility. This enables gang members to expand their operations in new territories, grow the gang enterprise, and provide support to their leaders (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Business Insider Incorporation, 2012).
Mutually beneficial and strong relationships exist among various gangs and between gangs and other criminal enterprises in the United States. In the present era, national-level gangs and neighborhood-based gangs form and maintain strong alliances with drug trafficking organizations, such as Mexican Transnational Criminal Organizations (MTCOs) (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Business Insider Incorporation, 2012).
These relationships increase the profitability of gangs by enhancing drug transportation and distribution and facilitating violent crimes directed toward ensuring drug payments, protecting drug transportation, and preventing rival gangs from using drug corridors. Neighborhood gangs are increasingly recruited by national street gangs to eliminate competition and increase their membership. Additionally, mutual collaborations are formed by rival gangs to increase their numbers and enhance protection if they are incarcerated (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Business Insider Incorporation, 2012).
Modern technology is also deployed by gangs in the present era. The use of technology enables gangs to communicate covertly and conduct criminal activities with minimal threat of detection. Technology deployment assists gangs in locating and establishing targets, counterattacking rivals, facilitating criminal activities, improving criminal operations, and monitoring law enforcement (Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014).
Four basic types of gangs exist in various regions of the United States: street gangs, prison gangs, neighborhood-based gangs, and outlaw motorcycle gangs.
These gangs are present across numerous regions throughout the United States. Their membership varies from region to region in terms of number of members, ethnic and racial composition, and organizational structure (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
Prison gangs are criminal organizations that formulate within the law enforcement and penal systems of the United States. These organizations continue to proliferate themselves outside penal systems. A prison gang generally consists of a limited number of members organized on the basis of well-established hierarchies and governed by stringent codes of conduct. Significant variation exists in the structure and composition of prison gangs in the United States, ranging from highly structured gangs such as Nuestra Familia (NF) and the Aryan Brotherhood (AB), to less formal gangs such as the Mexican Mafia (Eme). Prison gang membership is generally smaller than that of outlaw motorcycle gangs and street gangs, and these members are organized along specific racial and ethnic lines (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
Outlaw motorcycle gangs are criminal organizations whose members deploy motorcycle clubs as channels to conduct illegal activities. These organizations are highly structured and engage in severe criminal activities including weapon trafficking, violent crime, and drug trafficking. Currently, more than 300 outlaw motorcycle gangs operate in the United States, ranging from organizations with single chapters containing 6 to 7 members to those with hundreds of chapters and thousands of members operating worldwide (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
A number of factors trigger individuals to become members of gangs and engage in illicit activities. Anxiety and depression are significant factors, as they lead to high degrees of frustration and emotional instability, which can prompt individuals to join gangs. Economic problems and financial instability are also among the most influential factors that trigger gang membership, because gangs are generally financially rewarding and have the ability to improve the financial status of individuals. Other factors that may lead to gang membership include drug usage, psychological problems, and family background (Madden, 2013; Taylor, 2013).
Large street gangs pose evident threats to the economy and safety of the United States, as they are responsible for circulating and transporting large quantities of illicit drugs across the nation. Additionally, these gangs are violent in their activities and pose severe threats to public safety. Similarly, prison gangs pose national-level threats because of their influential role in drug transportation and trafficking. Prison gangs also act as channels between drug trafficking organizations and outlaw motorcycle gangs (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
Gang members who obtain legal positions in military installations, corrections facilities, government bodies, and law enforcement agencies exploit these positions to proliferate their criminal enterprises throughout the nation. By gaining employment in military, law enforcement, and judiciary systems, gang members misuse their power and encourage family members and subordinates to follow suit, which enables them to target law enforcement, monitor rivals, and hinder criminal investigations. Furthermore, the presence of gang members in the U.S. military poses serious threats to community and public safety, as gang members may gain access to advanced weapons, develop combat skills, and access sensitive information (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
The presence of gangs in schools throughout the United States acts as a hindrance to educators and law enforcement agencies. A clear link exists between crimes in primary, secondary, and high schools, selected college campuses, and street gangs. Schools provide gangs with effective grounds for recruitment of new members, and numerous criminal activities such as robberies, assaults, intimidation, threats, weapon offenses, and drug distribution are widespread in public schools across the United States (Pappas, 2001; Staff Members of the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations, 2014; Staff Members of the Joint Crime Information Center Intelligence & Counterterrorism Division, Texas Department of Public Safety, 2014).
The following strategies can be deployed at the community level to reduce the proliferation of gangs in the United States and combat the threats posed by these gangs:
One approach is to enhance the penalties imposed on criminals and increase the frequency of incarceration (Pappas, 2001).
"Evidence-based community interventions and policies"
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