GIS Applications and Benefits for Law Enforcement

Introduction

Police methods have changed dramatically around the world in recent years due to the advent of geo-positioning and improved computer-aided mapping techniques. As has happened throughout the history of policing, law enforcement officials have always tried to use new scientific research to their benefit. Since the object is the safety and comfort of local citizens, a major aspect of the mission for police departments is to always use the most up-to-date methods for the detection and apprehension of criminals. With the advent of computer-aided geographic information systems (GIS), police now have the ability to approach crime in an entirely new way.

According to Rich and Shively (2004), geographic profiling was "born" in 1980 when a UK police investigator analyzed the locations of crime scenes of the Yorkshire Ripper and computed the "center of gravity" of those crime scenes. This beginning has been debated by different scholars, but the fact is that GIS has been an aid to police for a number of years. One term used to describe the full range of GIS methods is geographic profiling. In attempting to give a comprehensive definition of the term, Rich and Shively (2004) stated that:

"Geographic profiling is a criminal investigative technique that attempts to provide information on the likely 'base of operations' of offenders thought to be committing serial crimes… predictions are based on the locations of these crimes, other geographic information about the case and the suspect, and certain assumptions about the distance offenders will travel to commit crimes."

Since the data used to actually profile and locate offenders differs from system to system and department to department, it is simpler to use a less inclusive definition, such as one that describes geographic profiling as "a process used to attempt to discover the most probable area of residence of a serial offender" (Harries & LeBeau, 2007). Although this definition could also be considered an oversimplification, since the technique is now used to locate individuals who have committed individual crimes as well and so cannot be said to apply only to "serial offenders." Other definitions of various systems are useful, but since they apply to specific equipment not generally discussed throughout the paper, they will be introduced when a specific topic or system is addressed.

Different systems of GIS represent significant advancements for police departments because they provide information that was not easily obtainable prior to the advent of computers and GPS systems. However, there are issues — both in the legal realm and with types of software — that make further research and development a necessity. Determining how GIS was developed, what its relevant uses are, the differences and adequacies of the types used, and what problems they present are the central focuses of this paper.

Developing GIS

GIS was not a singular endeavor that arose simply because computers were invented. The process of improving police methods has spanned centuries, but modern policing can be traced back to at least 1881. According to Soullier's Stages of Technological Advancement in Policing, there have been four distinct eras in this process:

Stage 1 (1881–1945): mobile patrol, radio communications, telephone communications

Stage 2 (1946–1959): traffic violation detection instruments

Stage 3 (1960–1979): 911 systems, centralized dispatch, civilian specialists, research and development organizations, the beginning of the computer age

Stage 4 (1980–present): telecommunications advances, mobile data communications, expert systems, imaging biometrics, GIS (Grant & Terry, 2005)

This progression illustrates a logical development through both electronic means of criminal detection and improved ways to conduct police work. Every time a new type of invention emerges, many industries attempt to determine how it can improve productivity, and police departments are no exception. The reason is straightforward: the mission of law enforcement is critical to the founding principles embodied in the Declaration of Independence — namely, that citizens shall have life, liberty, and the ability to pursue happiness. Law enforcement must also grow with the times because criminal enterprises will likewise use new technologies to their own advantage.

Computers primarily gave police the ability to consolidate different types of data quickly. Because there are many layers to crime that cannot be easily determined even by an officer walking a beat, police needed a tool that could take a large number of variables and look for correlations pointing to hotspots. GIS systems use factors known to affect crime, which include (in part):

"Population density and degree of urbanization; racial heterogeneity; variations in composition of the population; stability of the population; modes of transportation and the highway system; economic conditions; cultural factors; family conditions; climate; and effective strength of law enforcement agencies" (Johnson, 2000).

All of these factors can be loaded into a program to narrow down a larger area of operation for an individual or group committing crimes. They can also be used to track areas in which crime is more frequent than in other areas of a given region. For example, "a recent analysis of rapists in the UK showed a median distance between offender residence and the crime site of 2.4 km; a comparable finding for U.S. data was 5.1 km with an average closest distance of 2.7 km" (Harries & LeBeau, 2007). This technique was one important factor used to determine the area within which a specific rapist operated, and such data allows for the more rapid apprehension of criminals.

GIS Types

There is not just one type of GIS in use. Law enforcement agencies have different needs, and there are various types of computer software that are more appropriate depending on the particular law enforcement unit using them. These types range from complicated mapping systems that give departments multiple layers of data to simple location devices that can be purchased quite cheaply by smaller departments. Alexander, Groff, and Hibdon (1997) looked at how an "off-the-shelf" GIS product could be modified to enhance its usability based on local expert knowledge and dynamic data exchange — that is, the "communication among the various software products" used. By combining a simple GIS program with data collected from field experts (such as professionals from a rape crisis or gang unit), even a large police force can transform a basic program into a means of compiling complex data and providing precise information.

More complex computer methods have been developed that assist officers to an even greater degree. Craglia, Haining, and Wiles (2000) analyzed different computer-aided GIS methods and found that while both had good applications, both also had limitations. These two methods were standards used by different police departments, and newer generations of the same software are still in use today.

The integration of these programs is called problem-oriented policing, which "puts the results of crime mapping, applied geography, and theoretical analysis into practice in the field. In addition to helping investigate individual crimes, this work has supported law enforcement in field and special operations, staffing and deployment decisions, and event planning" (Wilson & Smith, 2008). By using GIS techniques in combination with other available information, police are better able to position their forces, which adds further to public security.

Conclusion

Law enforcement agencies are always looking for new methods of policing that will allow them to perform better and more efficiently. This has become more important in recent years because, in an effort to reduce municipal costs, many cities have cut their law enforcement budgets. Because GIS systems can focus efforts and are not overly expensive (depending on type), law enforcement agencies are adopting them to an ever-greater extent. The various systems have also helped other types of agencies — such as emergency preparedness organizations — refine their response capabilities. However, there are issues that must be confronted.

These issues, both legal and structural, could be characterized as the greatest deterrent to the future use of such systems. Yet law enforcement and legal entities recognize that they must work together to address crime effectively. GIS systems, when properly used, are among the most effective tools available to law enforcement, and any glitches that arise can be resolved through the courts or through cooperation between the two professions. It is not necessary to abandon the use of these systems because of legal issues, and structural problems with individual programs are mitigated by the fact that most police forces use multiple programs to ensure the best possible analytical output.

Because this is a relatively new field, issues will arise, but they are minor compared to the benefits the technology offers. Not only is GIS more cost-effective than many traditional methods, it provides a level of safety that could not otherwise be achieved. It is possible to find fault with any system, but in this particular case the benefits far outweigh the associated costs. The use of GIS systems will likely expand, and — as with other technologies — the systems will only improve over time. In the near future, officers will likely be able to use handheld devices such as smartphones and tablet computers to instantly update data and focus their efforts even further, potentially representing one of the greatest advancements in the history of law enforcement.

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