GIS as a Client-Server System: U.S. Government ROI Case Studies

Introduction to GIS as a Client-Server System

Client-server systems are a group of interrelated subsystems that collaborate to provide a specific solution or service. This computing model structures diverse and distributed applications by separating tasks between the providers (servers) and service seekers (clients). For the purposes of this paper, the provider-server is the Geographic Information System and the client is the U.S. government. This paper analyzes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as a client-server system. GIS are quite costly with respect to installation. The primary concerns when setting up GIS are:

This case study examines several GIS projects implemented over the years by various U.S. government agencies. GIS has tremendous benefits for U.S. organizations that have successfully implemented it, and both public and private sectors stand to gain from this client-server system, which has relatively few drawbacks. The case study looks at counties, towns, and government organizations as they implemented GIS in their domains and reaped the rewards.

GIS: Definition and Applications

A geographic information system, or geospatial information system (GIS), is a convenient tool for capturing, analyzing, managing, and presenting data linked to locations. In simple terms, GIS combines cartography, database technology, and statistical analysis. GIS systems are employed in cartography, remote sensing, land surveying, public utility management, natural resource management, geography, urban planning, photogrammetry, emergency management, navigation, aerial video, and local search engines.

GIS is a system capable of digitally creating and manipulating spatial areas that can be purpose-oriented, jurisdiction-oriented, or application-oriented for the particular GIS developed. Consequently, one particular GIS will not necessarily work with a different application, jurisdiction, purpose, or enterprise — each GIS is tailored to its own specific context.

Behind the scenes, GIS operates as a spatial data infrastructure (SDI) — a system capable of storing, integrating, editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographic information for varied purposes. GIS applications assist users in making interactive inquiries, such as editing maps, analyzing spatial information, and displaying results as needed.

For example, GIS can assist emergency planners in conducting rescue operations with relative ease and moving people to secure locations. It is capable of identifying wetlands that require protection, finding new potential sites, and mapping previously untapped trends. GIS is now used in numerous major offices and companies and is taught in many universities and certification programs.

History of GIS

In 1950, an American reconnaissance satellite (a spy satellite) photographed locations inside the USSR — photographs that were later denied. The USSR responded by launching Sputnik I, causing the U.S. to recognize it had entered uncharted territory where negotiation was no longer straightforward. The Corona satellite system was subsequently developed to monitor the arms race, dispel rumors, and keep watch on the USSR (Peters, 2008).

After the thirteenth launch, the Corona satellite finally succeeded fully. The program remained classified until it was declassified in 1996, forty years after its secret operation began. Later improvements enabled longer missions, better resolution, and enhanced picture-enlargement capability. In addition to the Corona system, other projects were undertaken in the 1950s, including Reconnaissance Balloon Programs such as Project Gopher and Project Moby Dick — a recovery system for film canisters dropped from C-119 Flying Boxcar cargo planes (Peters, 2008).

Airplane Reconnaissance Programs also deployed spy planes flying at low altitudes to photograph the USSR. The U-2 spy plane flew at high altitudes, while the Skunkworks program produced additional spy aircraft that photographed denied areas of the USSR. Balloon systems proved somewhat unreliable, however, often drifting over Siberia and China rather than their intended targets. Sputnik I was finally launched into space in 1957, which accelerated the satellite race considerably. A separate, unified history of GIS was never formally recorded because the technology evolved from a variety of independently developed projects. In practical terms, GIS assigns an individual location many layers of data, providing a richer understanding of any given area. The analysis of an area depends on its purpose — it might involve locating a new retail site, assessing environmental damage, or identifying patterns within crime statistics (Peters, 2008).

GIS has come a long way from early reconnaissance photography to properly defined and layered location imagery. Digital maps today are highly detailed. GIS has evolved from rudimentary markings to a sophisticated system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced data. Technology has expanded our knowledge and enabled safer, more organized responses to damage control and crisis situations (Peters, 2008).

Conclusion: The Value of GIS Investment

A model for predicting GIS ROI was devised by the Public Technology Institute (PTI). This model assessed the cost of each component alongside its potential advantages. One advantage is the likelihood of higher census counts: population counts can be increased by 5% with a detailed GIS. While 5% may not sound substantial in isolation, consider a locality with 100,000 residents receiving $200 per capita in federal and state grants — a 5% increase could translate into $1 million in additional funding annually. GIS can also enhance real estate tax collection by identifying properties that have been missed, potentially increasing tax collection by up to 1% per year (Leidner, 2007).

Another advantage is the faster dispatch of crime analysis and emergency services. When GIS has accurate address and routing information, it can direct an emergency vehicle to a scene in a matter of minutes. A faster response can reduce deaths by nearly 10% in critical situations such as cardiac arrest. Police departments can also become more effective with more accurate crime analysis reports. The City of New York recorded its highest murder rate of 2,262 in 1990; by 2006, that figure had fallen to 596. New York City's CompStat system is a crime analysis application that employs GIS. In terms of ROI, approximately $1 million per death avoided can be estimated as a benefit. GIS-connected vehicles equipped with mobile computers can also save time and energy. Taken together, these benefits yield an estimated return of $4 for every $1 invested (Leidner, 2007).

To date, four major GIS ROI studies have been conducted, and all four reached the same conclusion: GIS delivers measurable, positive returns and represents the future of spatial data management for government agencies.

Freeman, M. (2008). Government Technology.

Giglierano, J. (2009). Iowa Geographic Information Council, 20 May 2009.

Leidner, A. (2007). American City & County: Payback Figures.

Maguire, D. et al., eds. (2008). The Business Benefits of GIS: An ROI Approach. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 3–10.

Peters, D. (2008). Building a GIS: System Architecture Design Strategies for Managers. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 5.

Poplin, J. et al. (2007). Baltimore County GIS Strategic Business Plan Presentation.

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Wade, T. and Sommer, S. (2006). A to Z GIS. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 90.

Tomlinson, R. (2003). Thinking About GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 13–17.