GIS and GPS in Modern Military Operations and Warfare

Introduction

Today's technology has altered the face of modern warfare. Technology has made it possible for peacekeeping to play a bigger and more successful role, serving as a deterrent to armed conflict. Unmanned drones are sent over war zones to detect and eliminate armed threats. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) work independently and together to provide strategic information that can turn an armed conflict in favor of one side or the other, depending on which possesses the superior technology.

Possessing geographical information technology is something that weighs the balance of military power in one direction or another. It is not a new technology; as early as 1964, the United States was launching satellites into orbit around the earth, relaying back images from satellites placed strategically in what is called the Clarke Belt. Three satellites maintain synchronization with the earth's own movement while remaining within their strategic geographical range as they orbit. As a result, between the three satellites and their strategic placement, they continually relay complete global images back to earth. These three satellites are early examples of GIS.

Today, however, GIS is a far more sophisticated technology, as we can see in space exploration. Consider the technology being used to map Mars. NASA's satellites and rovers relay panoramic views of Mars back to control centers, which NASA then combines to produce a detailed panoramic view of the red planet. The resulting view of a planet hundreds of thousands of miles from earth is highly detailed, revealing a rocky, mountainous, and dry planetary surface. This view comes to us by way of GIS technology.

The technology is indispensable, especially for strategic military operations. Combining GIS with GPS produces a phenomenal result. The military operation employing these interacting technologies holds an advantage that cannot be matched by a force lacking one or both of these tools. The challenge, however, is that it is difficult for the government to control their use.

Emerging information technology trends include the wide-scale use of cryptography, growing commercial use of traffic analysis techniques and database systems, powerful GIS systems and imagery workstations, and other capabilities that allow information to be combined and utilized in new ways. Like GPS, the character of these technologies is determined by how and to what end they are applied. Because these technologies do not pose obvious, immediate dangers, it is difficult to see how controls can be made to work or find political support. Further compounding the problem is the nonphysical nature of many of these technologies, which makes controlling them especially difficult.

Once control of the technology is lost to the public and other entities, the edge it provides to the military becomes obsolete. This is why, to date, we do not see widespread use of GIS technology. We do see widespread use of GPS, because it can be used without jeopardizing military operations. The geodetic survey capability encompassed within GIS is a vastly different technological capability than GPS. Combined, the two technologies create a tremendous military strategic advantage.

The Technology Behind GIS

The technology behind GIS is much like what NASA employs in the space exploration of Mars. Aimed at the earth, we see the same technology employed in weather services and by government agencies outside of the military, such as the National Geodetic Survey, the National Ocean Service, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

On the National Geodetic Survey site, post-storm imagery of the Gulf region of the United States is available. The images are clear and visible down to fine details. Looking at these images, one can readily understand the use the military makes of such imagery.

As demonstrated in diagrams available from ESRI GIS and Mapping Software, the GIS process begins with the collaboration of a team of individuals who identify a geographical location and the problems associated with it. Technology is then applied, producing a compilation of spatial data in a three-dimensional layered presentation. This layered structure is the building mechanism of the GIS as it surveys the specified geographical site and constructs the viewed terrain. The next step involves integration of the spatial data.

The integration of data is accomplished by satellite survey over designated geographic parameters. The information is then projected back to an earthbound computer data bank, where it is analyzed and rendered into a visual form. Once in visual form, the information can be manipulated according to the initial layered spatial analysis. The resulting image can be presented in its spatial layers, or as one composite image, building the landscape up to the level of a realistic representation — as seen, for example, in imagery of storm aftermath on the National Geodetic Survey site. In the final step, this information provides the basis for subsequent decision-making.

The breadth of information that can be gained through GIS is wide-ranging. The spatial analysis begins with a bare earth Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or Digital Terrain Model (DTM). The land, water, and vegetation are distinctly discernible at this level. When the layered Digital Surface Model GIS implementation is placed over this base, a three-dimensional raised impression emerges of the objects — presumably man-made — that sit on the surfaces shown in the bare-earth model. The ortho-imagery layer provides the actual visual representation in color terms, while the underlying layers detect heat signatures as reflected by earth, water, and vegetation. A final multi- and hyper-spectral layer applies color coding useful for detailed surface analysis.

This is a remarkable technology, and today it can be found for public use on the internet. Search engines offer GIS services that allow users to locate specific addresses in large metropolitan areas. The images are clear, detailed, and can give the viewer a comprehensive scope of the surrounding area. While this raises significant privacy concerns, from a military perspective the information available through such systems is invaluable.

Military Operations: Troop Deployment and Movement

In 2003, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) released the results of a study on GIS and the challenges of data sharing. The report emphasized the capabilities of the technology, citing its use in recovering the wreckage of the Space Shuttle Columbia after it broke apart on reentry. The debris field from the Columbia was strewn across forty-one counties in two states — Texas and Louisiana — and federal officials attributed the success of the recovery effort to GIS. Given this success in such a high-stakes incident, the technology's importance to military operations is easily understood.

Militarily, GIS is essential to the movement of troops and supplies, controlling access to areas, and even mapping ocean floors for the optimization of surface and submarine exercises. The GAO report demonstrates that the Department of Defense and defense agencies share the GIS service directory not only with the federal government, but also with state governments, civilian entities, international users, and commercial users. Although the benefits of GIS to non-military entities are understandable, the shared nature of the satellite information systems raises important questions.

The federal government sponsors a "Geospatial One-Stop Portal" with objectives that, while current, remain subject to ongoing debate as to their comprehensiveness. Specifically, these objectives include: (1) deploying an Internet portal for one-stop access to geospatial data as an extension to the NSDI Clearinghouse network; (2) developing data standards for the seven NSDI framework data themes; (3) creating an inventory of federal data holdings related to the seven framework themes; and (4) encouraging greater coordination among federal, state, and local agencies regarding existing and planned geospatial data collection projects.

In terms of troop deployment, it is clear that GIS can help command centers evaluate the terrain of a mission site. Knowing the terrain, vegetation, and water sources in advance prepares mission teams to confront the conditions associated with a site's geography. Analysis provides information for determining, in advance, the best locations for base camps — sites where terrain is less vulnerable to hostile advances. GIS also demonstrates how supplies can most efficiently be delivered. It can indicate to military coordinators how many helicopters, armored ground vehicles, and other transport vehicles will be required based on terrain conditions, and whether supplies can be delivered by ground or air. GIS is a valuable tool for military logistical purposes.

When the layered data GIS delivers is examined, it becomes clear that this information is essential to planning both offensive and defensive military positions. Where troops will be strategically placed in a conflict zone is a decision-making process now facilitated by GIS data.

Combining GIS data with GPS creates a near-invincible military capability that could significantly reduce the number of troops and equipment required on the ground. With the combination of GIS and GPS, the exact location of a hostile force can be determined, and special teams can use this information to mount a targeted assault. The combination allows military analysts to more accurately determine troop numbers and to plan the most strategic and well-prepared route of advance. GIS allows analysts to home in on a specific location, visually observe targets on the ground, and evaluate enemy strength in both numbers and military equipment.

Conclusion

GIS provides the military with unique capabilities, and can mean the difference between being at a strategic advantage or disadvantage. Ronald J. Sznaider identifies the uses of GIS and weather integration in military contexts as follows:

Battlespace: Internal military weather information, converted into GIS formats, allows weather data to be precisely combined with the locations of other military assets such as troop positions, and ultimately more seamlessly integrated into battlefield command and control systems.

Intelligence Gathering: Forecast cloud cover and atmospheric moisture profiles, compared against data acquisition targets, can provide more efficient and reliable scheduling of remote sensing from satellites.

Terrorist Threat Analysis: Highly localized real-time wind observations, integrated into plume dispersion models, provide timely and accurate projections of airborne concentrations of chemical gases that could endanger troops.

Inter-agency Transfer: Internal military weather information, converted into a recognized standard GIS format, provides enhanced interoperability through standardized data exchange with other non-weather data sets.

The use of GIS in detecting terrain and vegetation is essential when planning military operations. GIS allows military forces — including the Air Force, Navy, and Army — to analyze a combination of position, mapping, and weather in the layered, information-rich data presentations available only through GIS. GIS has changed the way in which the military operates, giving the force that combines GIS with GPS capabilities a superior strategic advantage.

There is no limit to the uses and advantages gained through military use of GIS systems.

References

Amodeo, Christian. "Eyes in the Skies: In the Past Ten Years, the Number of People Making Use of Satellite Technology Has Soared." Geographical, vol. 75, Campion Interactive Publishing Limited, February 2003, p. 48.

GAO-03-874T. Geographic Information Systems: Challenges to Effective Data Sharing. GAO, 10 June 2003.

Intoccia, Gregory F., and Moore, Joe Wesley. "Communications, Technology, Warfare, and the Law: Is the Network a Weapon System?" Houston Journal of International Law, vol. 28, 2006, p. 467.

National Geodetic Survey (NGS). Available at http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/.

Pace, Scott, Frost, Gerald, Frelinger, David, Fossum, Donna, Wassem, Donald K., and Pinto, Monica. The Global Positioning System: Assessing National Policies. New York: Rand, 1995, p. 197.

Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC). Available at

Sznaider, Ronald J. Optional Use of Weather Information in GIS-based Decision Support Systems. White paper, Meteorlogix, 2005.