Heroism in Ancient Literature: Five Epic Traditions Compared

Introduction: Defining the Hero Across Cultures

The word "hero" today carries a variety of meanings, depending on the situation, the person referred to, and the mindset of the speaker. Generally, the word connotes someone who performs a brave action regardless of the danger to him or herself. When examining ancient literature from different cultures, the meaning of "hero" can be traced and compared both with other works of its time and with more modern usages of the word. To this end, five works of ancient literature are examined in order to determine how each author constructs the hero concept. One idea that emerges across all five is that, regardless of time and location, a hero in any given society is a human being — sometimes with supernatural characteristics — who personifies the highest ideals of that society. This observation applies to the heroes in Beowulf, The Iliad, Gilgamesh, The Odyssey, and The Tale of the Heike.

Beowulf: The Anglo-Saxon Warrior-Hero

Beowulf is an epic poem from the Anglo-Saxon culture. While the title character does not incorporate any supernatural or godly characteristics, he is nonetheless a superior human being by the standards of the poem's time. In this society, the best qualities a hero could possess were his capacities as a warrior: strength, intelligence, and courage (Garcia). These are qualities that Beowulf displays in abundance. In addition, the warrior was expected to be humble despite his obvious physical prowess and talent. The poem shows that Beowulf embodies all these essential characteristics. He is described as having the strength of "thirty men" in just one arm, yet he also refuses the kingship when it is offered to him by the Danes. He understands that being king, though prestigious and well deserved, is not the role he is meant to fulfill. Instead, he returns to Hygelac and honors his loyalty to his native king.

Both Beowulf's actions and his physical appearance demonstrate him as the essential embodiment of heroism in his culture. In fighting Grendel and his mother, as well as sea monsters and the fire-breathing dragon, his heroic courage confirms his status as a hero. In his fight with Grendel, he shows both courage and honor by choosing to battle without his sword. In this way, Beowulf disregards his own safety for the sake of those he appoints himself to protect. He combines this selflessness with an unparalleled faith not only in his own strength, but also in the "fate" that he believes will protect him because of his courage. At the same time, he accepts that if he is fated to die, there is nothing he can do to prevent it, and he faces that possibility willingly. His words to Unferth illustrate this outlook: "Fate often saves an undoomed man when his courage is good."

In the Anglo-Saxon tradition, therefore, heroism entails a combination of qualities: great strength and courage, paired with honor and humility.

The Iliad: Achilles and the Greco-Roman Hero

Homer's Iliad incorporates the same central idea — that the hero represents what is best in humanity — but enriches it considerably. In this case, Achilles is representative of heroism in the Greco-Roman world. Here, the hero concept entails more than exceptional human strength and courage. Those qualities are present, but the hero is also partly supernatural: Achilles is the son of a sea goddess, which provides him not only with the strength and physical attractiveness befitting a hero of his time, but also with a divine nature that was integral to the heroic ideal.

Homer's epic heroes are furnished with an almost supernatural strength and beauty, but also with a tragic quality. The contrast between Achilles' perfection and his vulnerability makes him deeply appealing to the reader. The many conflicting emotions within him reveal both his divinity and his humanity, and these are frequently in conflict with his duties to the king and the Greek army — much as his drive to be remembered as a hero conflicts with his desire to remain with the woman he loves. In this way, Achilles' dual nature as both god and man is symbolic of the emotional conflicts his position creates.

According to Brandon Oto, Achilles is hailed as the finest warrior in the Greek army, yet many other warriors exceed him in certain respects. This observation is important if Achilles — rather than Aias, Diomedes, or Hector — is to be considered the archetype of the hero in the work. What sets Achilles apart is his emotional depth and the way he handles conflict both within himself and in the world around him. In this regard, an evolution can be seen in the hero concept as it moves from the Anglo-Saxon to the Greco-Roman paradigm. Furthermore, despite not featuring as prominently in battle as some others, Achilles is perceived by his society as the finest warrior and is honored accordingly. Oto refers to this as his "public relations" image.

Conclusion: Universal and Culture-Specific Heroism

In considering the ideal of heroism across literature from different regions and time periods, fundamental differences emerge. The Buddhist principle of a spiritual paradigm, for example, contrasts strongly with the primarily physical paradigm of heroes such as Beowulf. Beowulf, Achilles, and Odysseus battle physical monsters, while the Samurai fights a symbolically spiritual battle.

Spirituality does, however, play a vitally important role in the lives of all the heroes examined. This appears to be a universal principle of heroism across all five works. Another common factor is that society determines the main qualities of the hero as they manifest in the literature of a specific time and place. Regardless of cultural context, the hero ultimately serves as the embodiment of his society's highest ideals — whether those ideals are expressed through physical might, divine lineage, emotional depth, or inner spiritual purity.