This paper examines the Industrial Revolution — commonly called the "Western Miracle" or "European Miracle" — from its origins in Great Britain during the late 1700s through its spread to the United States and Europe in the nineteenth century. The paper explores the economic conditions, technological innovations, and infrastructure developments, including railroads, the steam engine, and the telegraph, that made industrialization possible. It also discusses the social consequences of the revolution: the exploitation of child and female labor, dangerous factory conditions, the rise of urban poverty, and the emergence of labor unions. The paper concludes by reflecting on the assembly line's transformative role and the revolution's lasting significance in shaping modern industrial society.
It has been called the "Western Miracle" and the "European Miracle," but it is commonly known as the Industrial Revolution. During the latter half of the 1700s and into the beginning of the twentieth century, the European continent and North America underwent remarkable changes. These changes did not center on politics but on economics and a new way of conducting business. They would also bring a new way of life for the middle and lower classes. Now referred to as the Industrial Revolution, this period brought forth a new way of producing goods. It changed the face of nations from an agricultural emphasis to one of industry and mass production of processed goods, which in turn changed how countries viewed workplaces and how workers were treated.
Great Britain gave birth to this whole concept of industry while it was also the strongest power in the modern world. This was a revolution that could only first be started by a very powerful country. The United States, France, and Germany would soon follow in the footsteps of Great Britain. With the introduction of this sweeping new concept, society turned toward complexity, and the rural lifestyle that had dominated these countries heard its "two-minute warning." The improved economic power of an industrialized society also created complex new problems that would have to be tackled.
Compared with what it had been a century earlier, the standard of living of the British people in 1850 was higher on average and a great deal more varied. Compared with their contemporaries in other countries, the British people enjoyed a richer and more varied standard of living as a result of industrialization. Estimates of average national income per head suggest that they were then the most affluent people in the world. Rates of growth are the final indicators that a country underwent an industrial revolution. Population, national output, and incomes per head were all growing faster than they had in the pre-industrial era, and they were growing continuously. For industrial production, the peak rate of growth was reached in the 1820s and the 1830s. For exports, the peak rate came in the period 1846–1856, when the volume of British domestic exports more than doubled in less than a decade.
Britain could not have supported an industrial revolution without the help of the railroads. In 1830, England had approximately twenty thousand miles of turnpike roads, along with 4,670 miles of canals and improved rivers. The decade after 1830 witnessed the building of many short but important rail lines, and by 1840 nearly eight hundred miles of railroad had been built in England. A veritable railroad mania swept the country; by 1850, over six thousand miles of track had been built in Great Britain, and by 1879, fifteen thousand miles. Concurrent with railroad construction, a network of telegraph wires spread across Europe, bringing people into ever more immediate contact and making of Europe — and then the world — a single market. In 1843, the first electric telegraph line in England was opened between Paddington and Slough; in 1851, a submarine cable was laid between England and France; and in 1866, after several earlier attempts had failed, Cyrus Field laid the first transatlantic cable.
Britain's colonial empire allowed the country to make a decisive turn toward mass production. Britain controlled much of the sugar islands of the West Indies, drove the French from the fur-bearing regions of America, and strengthened her hold on the Newfoundland fishing banks. England was thus positioned to experience the most effective benefits from colonial trade and supplies, and presently certain industries found themselves unable to meet the demands placed upon them unless fundamental changes in organization and technique were made.
The industrial revolution could not have happened without the contribution of the financing and banking industry. The chief contribution of the banks to the industrial revolution consisted in mobilizing short-term funds and transferring them from areas where there was little demand to others that were hungry for capital. In effect, rural England was providing foodstuffs for growing urban communities without requiring an immediate financial return. Industry was then able to use its own resources to build factories and construct canals and railways that benefited both manufacturing and agricultural areas alike.
One of the most famous technological advancements of the era was steam power — and more specifically, the steam engine — which made the railroad possible and also catalyzed change in manufacturing plants. The world was also finding methods of fuel for energy, such as coal and petroleum. This revolutionized many industries, including textiles and manufacturing. A new communication medium called the telegraph was invented, making correspondence across oceans far faster. Though technology was thriving, it came at the cost of the socioeconomic status of the general population, which was declining.
One consequence was the birth of large cities with massive housing demands. Many people were driven to cities in search of work, only to find that those cities could not adequately support them. This new revolution also gave rise to the idea of a materialistic society — a characteristic still present today — which encouraged people and families to consume more than was necessary. Small wages meant that every able member of a family had to work, including young children.
Samuel Slater was the man credited with bringing the revolution from Great Britain to the United States. He believed the textile industry would soon level off in his homeland and took his chances in the young industrial society of America. While others with textile manufacturing experience had emigrated before him, Slater was the first to use his earlier experience and knowledge successfully. With funding from Providence investors, he built the first successful water-powered textile mill in Pawtucket in 1793. Working conditions in factories soon took a sharp turn for the worse during the late 1800s. Immigration to major metropolitan cities in the United States was at an all-time high. Since immigrants were desperate for work at almost any wage to survive, industry owners saw this as an opportunity to reduce labor costs. Workers were paid poverty-level wages and labored under grueling conditions. Hours were far too long, working conditions were often unsafe, and workers had no voice if they were dissatisfied with their situation in any way.
Children as young as five or six performed any job that would bring the family additional income. No laws prevented factories from employing children during the early industrial era. Severe punishments awaited young children who arrived late for work, and money would also be deducted from their already meager wages. Since wages were so low, many families could not afford any device to keep time. In some factories, workers were not even permitted to carry a watch. The children suspected that this rule was a deliberate attempt to cheat them out of wages. William Hutton wrote in 1816:
"…the ground was again caught by a frost, which glazed the streets. I did not awake, the next morning, till daylight seemed to appear. I rose in tears, for fear of punishment, and went to my father's bedside, to ask the time. He believed six; I darted out in agonies, and from the bottom of Full Street, to the top of Silk Mill Lane, not 200 yards, I fell nine times! Observing no lights in the mill, I knew it was an early hour, and the reflection of the snow had deceived me. Returning, the town clock struck two."
"Dangerous roles, punishments, and exploitation of children"
"Seamstresses, dressmakers, and wage inequality"
"Worker organizing, strikes, and Ford's assembly line"
The American Industrial Revolution was an economic revolution, but it profoundly impacted the lives of the many individuals who worked within it. Sacrifices were made and immeasurable time was devoted to the livelihood of families. Yet this revolution produced great methods, inventions, and ideas. Regardless of the atrocious working conditions, it brought forth enduring achievements. The Industrial Revolution was of central importance to history and to the formation of the modern nation.
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