Literary Ethnography and the New Testament World

Introduction to Literary Ethnography

There is no such thing as a time machine. Ancient history can only be understood by modern peoples through the cultural documentation that was left behind. Writings from the period of the New Testament exist, but they do not provide information about every aspect of everyday life. Consequently, historians and scholars must analyze the documents that are in existence in order to gain a greater understanding of the world's past. One technique that makes it possible for current populations to understand ancient texts is the use of literary ethnography. This procedure is the endeavor to use qualitative means to learn about and better understand various cultural documentation and ideology that mirrors a given culture's society. Particularly important to ethnography are the ways and means of knowledge acquisition within a culture, as well as the system of meanings that dictate that culture—such as language and the roles of particular members of the population. What can be empirically determined about a long-gone culture is best approached through the use of ethnography. Certain components of literary ethnography are more useful in the interpretation of given texts than others. In order to understand the text of the New Testament, modern scholars should investigate the argumentation exemplified in these texts, the concept of providence found in these same documents, and the concept of the simple life.

Argumentation and Rhetorical Training in the Ancient World

Argumentation is, by definition, the ways in which an individual or a given collective body tries to convince others of a point. In sociology, argumentation is the study of how humans should, can, and ultimately do reach conclusions, and how they utilize logic to arrive at those conclusions. These are claims that must have a base or premises on which to be justified—not merely a hypothesis without discernible evidence to support it. In Ancient Greece and Rome, students in the educational system were required to be trained in arguing and debating with one another and with their teachers. This was considered important because it would allow them to question authority figures later in their lives. People must be taught not only how to learn, but also how to question the motivations behind the information they are being taught. In essence, students were trained to consider various options before taking a course of action, making them more thoughtful individuals in the process.

The Progymnasmata and the Chreia

In order to develop the ability to debate, students were trained in a series of pre-rhetorical exercises called progymnasmata. The progymnasmata were separated into fourteen distinct lessons, beginning with simpler lessons about grammar, syntax, content, and the key component: argumentation (Aphthonius 1). As the student progressed through the series, the lessons became more complicated and the requirements for completion more demanding. By the time the student finished the entire series of fourteen progymnasmata, he would be well prepared to undertake lessons in rhetoric and effective argumentation.

One of the first lessons a student would have to complete was the chreia. A chreia is a story or anecdote about another person used to educate and inform the listening audience. It is comparable to a moralistic story or a personification tale in the modern vernacular. The traditional chreia was divided into three parts: a chreiai with a saying, a chreiai with an action, and a chreiai that is mixed—being comprised of both the chreiai with a saying and the one with an action. A teacher would use the technique of the chreia to instruct students about a lesson, employing the story as a form of textual evidence. In this context, Aphthonius of Antioch uses a quotation by Isocrates: "The root of education is bitter, but its fruit is sweet."

There are eight steps in performing a proper chreia: 1) the encomiastic, or appraisal; 2) the paraphrastic; 3) rationale; 4) argument from the opposite position; 5) performing an analogy; 6) providing an example; 7) hearing testimony from the ancients; and 8) providing a short epilogue. In order to prove the Isocrates quotation true, the author proceeds through each of these steps. The encomiastic step involves praising the creator of the quotation and providing reasons to believe what he says. The paraphrastic step asks the author to paraphrase the main point of the quotation, making it more accessible to people who may not fully comprehend it without further elucidation. The rationale provides a justification for why the quotation is necessary and accurate. Providing the opposite argument is an effective rhetorical tool because it ensures that the author understands the opposing position and yet dismisses it, adding credibility to his own perspective while limiting the credibility of the opposition. The next two steps—performing an analogy and providing an example—are similar in concept, requiring the teller to apply the lessons of the quotation or story to other contexts. Additional testimony further bolsters the teacher's position, and providing an epilogue forms a bookend to the discussion, making it more difficult for those listening or reading the chreia to discount the author's argument.

Conclusion

In order to understand the cultures of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, scholars must examine the documentary evidence that has been left behind. One of the ways that historians and other scholars are able to explore this evidence is through the utilization of the techniques of literary ethnography. Among these varied techniques, some of the most important and effective tools in the scholar's toolkit involve examining documentation through specific cultural lenses. Looking at the ways a culture engages in argumentation and debate allows people in the present to understand how people in the past reached conclusions, and by what logic and reason those conclusions were formed. Providence reflects the belief that something in the universe controls all things; for the philosophers described here, the world was only intelligible if an all-powerful deity had already determined what would befall every being on earth. Finally, the philosophers of these cultures advocated a simplistic and less materialistic existence than many of their contemporaries. This combination of individual concepts allows scholars and historians to achieve a greater understanding of the ancient cultures under investigation.

Works Cited

Aphthonius of Antioch. "Progymnasmata."

Diogenes and Crates. "Principal Representatives of Cynic Philosophy."

Epictetus. "A Stoic View of Divine Providence."

Lucian of Samosata. "The Dream, or the Rooster."