Occupational Stress: Causes, Effects, and Management Strategies

Introduction and Definition of Occupational Stress

The definition of the term "occupational stress" is derived from the definitions of its two constituent words. In this context, occupational refers to anything related to the workplace, while stress is defined as a natural body reaction to physical, mental, or emotional strain experienced by an individual. Thus, occupational stress can be defined as any mechanism by which the body attempts to adapt to the workplace environment. These include normal mechanisms for dealing with workplace stress — commonly known as the fight-or-flight response — as well as expected or unexpected reactions in response to the workplace. Examples include eyestrain from staring at computer screens for extended periods, emotional and physical stress, depression, anxiety, aggression, and cognitive impairment such as degraded memory or reduced concentration span. All of these reactions can lead to poor work output, increased employee turnover, higher absenteeism, cardiovascular disease, injury, or even death (Patterson et al., 2005).

Occupational stress can also be defined as a hazard under relevant occupational safety and health legislation that can cause harm to employee health and to which employers have a duty of care to assess, identify, and control to the greatest extent possible. It can additionally be understood as the consequence of an individual being unable to cope with pressures in the workplace (Rees, 1997). These undesirable outcomes arise either because of a poor fit between the person's abilities and the requirements of their position, or because workplace conditions are otherwise unfavorable. Because the well-being of employees is inextricably associated with organizational performance and productivity, occupational stress demands timely investigation to identify ways to mitigate these effects (Osibanjo and Salau, 2016).

Although unemployment levels in the United States have steadily declined in recent years, there has been a corresponding increase in the amount of occupational stress being reported by American workers. A survey sponsored by Everest College and conducted by Harris Interactive found that fully 83% of all employed workers in the United States report being stressed by at least one job-related factor — an increase from 73% the previous year — with inadequate pay and excessively heavy workloads among the top factors reported (Work stress on the rise, 2013). Based on these findings, John Swartz, the regional director of career services at Everest College, concluded that, "More companies are hiring, but workers are still weary and stressed out from years of a troubled economy that has brought about longer hours, layoffs and budget cuts" (as cited in Work stress on the rise, 2013, p. 3).

Although a growing body of research confirms that pay levels are no longer among the most motivational factors for workers, compensation levels remain at or near the top of job-related stressors today. The Harris Interactive survey found that inordinately heavy workloads tied with inadequate compensation as the top job stressors, and both variables showed significant increases over the previous year (Work stress on the rise, 2013). Other job-related factors found to exacerbate occupational stress included poor relationships with coworkers, lengthy commuting times, being compelled to work in a career field not aligned with personal interests, poor work-life balance, and a lack of career advancement opportunities (Work stress on the rise, 2013).

It is also noteworthy that there were significant gender-related differences in the occupational stress levels reported, with nearly twice as many female workers as male workers (18% vs. 10%) citing inadequate pay as their primary job stressor (Work stress on the rise, 2013). Younger workers were also more likely than their older counterparts to report being stressed as a result of their employment (Work stress on the rise, 2013). In sum, younger American women aged 18 to 29 are the most stressed at work, though other categories of workers remain at high risk as well (Work stress on the rise, 2013). Although everyone experiences the negative and positive effects of occupational stress uniquely, there are common types of stress that represent typical responses to unmitigated workplace stress, as discussed below.

Types, Signs, and Symptoms of Occupational Stress

Stress is the human response to any type of demand, and such responses can be either positive or negative (Sharma, 2015). From a biophysical perspective, stress can be regarded as a mental, physical, or emotional response that results in mental or physical tension (Sharma, 2015). Occupational stress can also be defined as the adverse psychological and physical reactions that occur when an individual is unable to cope with the demands being made on them (Omolara, 2008). The terms workplace stress, job stress, and occupational stress are used interchangeably (Dollard, 2003). Regardless of the terminology used, occupational stress levels are notoriously difficult to quantify and measure, making the evaluation of stress-management interventions especially problematic. In response, researchers have developed various categories of job stressors to facilitate this process.

Job stressors have been classified into various categories by different investigators over the years. El-Kot and Burke note that researchers during the second half of the twentieth century identified five discrete categories: (1) stressors intrinsic to the job, (2) stressors from one's role in the organization, (3) career development, (4) relationships with others, and (5) organizational structure and culture. Other researchers have identified four main categories: (1) task demands, (2) role demands, (3) physical demands from elements in the physical setting or environment, and (4) interpersonal demands. More recently, work-family demands have also been included among the categories of job stressors by some organizational behavior researchers (El-Kot and Burke, 2011).

More succinctly, as posited by Nordstrom et al. (2001), there are two major types of stress that can occur in a person: physical and mental. Physical stress refers to any physical reaction of the body toward various triggers and is a major cause of emotional stress, since the two often manifest in one another. Mental stress, on the other hand, refers to mental exhaustion. According to Keegel et al. (2009), mental stress refers to mental strain resulting from a harmful agent that can lead to illness. It is reasonable to posit that sustained mental strain due to occupational stress can produce such serious effects.

The two types of stress have different signs and symptoms, some of which are more readily discernible than others. Physical stress can be observed when a person's heart rate becomes elevated and they begin to breathe faster. In certain situations, the person may also sweat profusely, experience cold extremities or skin, or have a dry mouth. Additional physical signs include fatigue, muscle spasms, shortness of breath, tightening of muscles, and general bodily tension (Iavicoli et al., 2001).

Other common signs of physical stress include eating more or less than normal and constantly feeling nervous, which may be detected through twitching muscles, fidgeting, rapid speech, teeth grinding, nail biting, restless pacing, or other repetitive habits. In more extreme situations, the person may develop conditions such as migraines, asthma, stomach and skin problems, aches and pains, or recurring flu-like symptoms. These signs arise because the physical well-being of the individual is thrown out of balance (Crouter and Manke, 1994).

As noted above, younger American women currently suffer the highest levels of occupational stress in the country, and these individuals are also at higher risk of experiencing adverse effects from job-related physical stress as well as the deleterious effects of occupational mental stress (Chitnis, 2014). Mental stress is often seen in sleeping disorders, constant worry, anxiety or confusion, and frequent mood changes such as frustration, depression, anger, defensiveness, irritability, irrationality, impatience, restlessness, or overreaction. Other common signs of occupational stress include dependence on harmful substances such as drugs, alcohol, or cigarettes (Okechukwu et al., 2010). In certain situations, the person may also develop poor memory or an inability to make decisions. In extreme cases, irrational fears of ordinary situations may even develop. All of these signs arise because the mental state of the person has been adversely affected by job-related stressors.

Occupational stress usually begins as acute stress arising from increasing workplace demands and pressure. It can lead a person to emotional distress expressed as anger, anxiety, depression, or irritability. It can also produce physical problems such as muscle tension, aches and pains, frequent headaches, and jaw or back pain — often the result of prolonged manual activity such as standing or walking for long periods. Such physical demands may also lead to elevated blood pressure, sweaty palms, rapid heartbeat, dizziness, cold extremities, chest or back pain, migraines, or shortness of breath. Occupational stress can additionally manifest as stomach or bowel problems including heartburn, diarrhea, constipation, flatulence, or irritable bowel syndrome. These symptoms may result from either physical or mental stress in the workplace (Eldon and Shani, 1991).

Occupational stress may also present through loneliness or social isolation, an inability to relax, pessimism, loss of concentration, constant worrying, procrastination, neglect of personal responsibilities, and other nervous habits such as pacing, teeth grinding, and nail biting.

Effects and Consequences of Occupational Stress

As noted by Hulshof et al. (1999), occupational stress is quite normal. However, when it becomes excessive, certain adverse effects can follow. These effects can be divided into three distinct categories: consequences to the individual, to the family, and to the organization. At all three levels, occupational stress produces a wide range of expensive, debilitating, and undesirable consequences (Ross, 2005).

Workplace stress can lead to a variety of effects on the individual, ranging from mild to severe depending on the intensity of the stress. These effects fall into two major groups: physical and psychological. In this regard, El-Kot and Burke (2011, p. 11) report that, "Individuals reporting higher levels of job stressors generally indicate lower levels of job satisfaction, more absenteeism, lower job performance, greater intent to quit, and lower levels of psychological and physical health."

Major physical effects include fatigue, stomach upset, headaches, muscular aches and pains, sleep disturbances, eating disorders, and other chronic or mild illnesses. Other effects include low motivation, poor work-life balance, diminished quality of work life, absenteeism, low morale, reduced productivity, poor decision-making, intention to seek other employment, occupational burnout, alienation, increased substance abuse, sabotage, and social withdrawal. Psychological problems include anxiety, irritability, psychological distress, passive-aggressive behaviors, loss of self-confidence and self-esteem, feelings of fatigue and futility, impulsive behavior, loss of contact with reality, job and life dissatisfaction, and emotional exhaustion (Spector, 2002). More troubling still, the consequences of unmitigated negative occupational stress extend across all types of sectors and industries among both white- and blue-collar workers (Chaudhry, 2012).

When occupational stress is not kept in check, it may become chronic and lead to trauma or even depression. A person may also alter their beliefs or views regarding particular aspects of life as a result of self-examination — often without professional assistance. Other severe adverse effects include heart attack, cancer, violence, suicide, or even paralysis (Manon Mireille and Barling, 2004).

In a study conducted in the United States (Smith et al., 1992), it was found that electronic monitoring of employees in the workplace led to increased workplace stress, resulting in many workers experiencing high boredom, anxiety, depression, health complaints, psychological tension, anger, and fatigue. The researchers also found that companies employing such monitoring had high employee turnover rates (Smith et al., 1992).

The individual's family also experiences undesirable consequences because of occupational stress. The individual may carry some of their stress home, causing stress to other family members. The person may also fail to provide for the family due to job loss or excessive spending on substance use or treatment. Other adverse effects on the family include coping with the individual's illness or even their death (Windle and Dumenci, 1997). In certain situations, occupational stress may also damage marriages and families when family members are unable to cope with the individual's dysfunctional responses. Couples may also be adversely affected in their intimate lives because of stress. Occupational stress increases domestic pressures such as financial worries and childcare responsibilities, thus affecting the overall quality of life outside work (Suraj-Narayan, 2005). Other effects include taking work home — which reduces time spent with family — job relocations that may split families, and a lack of leisure activities (Suraj-Narayan, 2005).

At the organizational level, the consequences of occupational stress fall into two subgroups: organizational symptoms and organizational costs. Organizational symptoms include discontent and low morale that may spread throughout the workforce, low productivity, poor quality of service to customers or clients, bad publicity when individuals suffer chronic effects of workplace stress, high accident rates leading to large insurance compensations, premature retirement, high staff turnover, poor internal communication, increased internal conflict, diminished staff cooperation, and a dysfunctional workplace climate (Huffman and Cohen, 2004). Indeed, research suggests that as much as 50 percent of all workplace absences can be attributed in some fashion to occupational stress (Akpochafe, 2012).

Organizational costs include reduced worker performance and productivity — which diminishes the value added to products or services and erodes client satisfaction — high costs from increased employee turnover, increased staff training and retraining costs, increased insurance premiums resulting from frequent claims, increased healthcare costs and sick pay, increased disability payments from workplace accidents, increased costs from repairing damaged equipment, and bad publicity that further diminishes revenues (Béjean and Sultan-Taïeb, 2005). Because occupational stress has been shown to have a direct impact on employee performance, it is not surprising that there is also a corresponding decline in overall organizational productivity. Such declines have a concomitant effect on profitability and can result in an increasingly negative public perception of a company (Sharma, 2015). Consequently, the adverse effects of occupational stress ultimately combine to damage employee relations as well as overall organizational performance and profitability (Sharma, 2015).

According to a study conducted by Daniels (2004), occupational stress costs the UK economy an estimated $4 billion every year (Brun and Milczarek, 2007), primarily from insurance claims, loss of customers, high employee turnover, and negative publicity. In the European Union as a whole, it is estimated that roughly 20 million euros is lost each year as a result of work-related stress (European Commission, 2002; Milczarek et al., 2009).

Though occupational stress is often associated with negative effects, certain positive effects can also result from workplace stress — provided, as experts note, that stress is balanced and moderated. This is what is commonly referred to as "good stress" (Shigemi et al., 2000). For example, Sauder and Murphy (2016) report that there are misperceptions about stress indicating that all such stress is harmful. A growing body of evidence confirms that some level of stress is an essential part of the human condition and that people tend to respond favorably to certain types of stress. According to Sauder and Murphy (2016, p. 6), "Challenge energizes us psychologically and physically, and it motivates us to learn new skills and master our jobs."

Notwithstanding the potential deleterious effects of unmitigated and relentless workplace stress, it is clear that without some level of stress, employees would become complacent, with corresponding declines in job satisfaction and morale — just as too much workplace stress can cause these same unwanted outcomes. Sauder and Murphy (2016, p. 7) conclude that, "The importance of challenge in our work lives is probably what people are referring to when they say 'a little bit of stress is good for you.'"

One of the most significant outcomes of "good stress" is increased creativity. As a result of stress-induced solitude or focused reflection, the individual may have the opportunity to broaden their thinking and embrace new ideas, leading to a considerable increase in creativity. For some individuals, stress also functions as a motivating factor: when stressed, they find productive ways to channel their emotional and physical responses toward working harder or rectifying past shortcomings such as procrastination (Smith, 2003).

Stress is also recognized as a cognitive enhancer. Workplace stress can improve certain aspects of cognition by giving the mind a boost associated with increased focus. When a person is stressed, they may be able to recall or memorize information more effectively and their concentration levels may increase. Stress also enhances physical performance and endurance: when the individual channels stress toward physical activity, it triggers the release of adrenaline, causing the heartbeat and metabolism to increase. These return to normal levels shortly afterward, leaving the person with improved reflexes, greater endurance, and reduced susceptibility to fatigue.

Researchers have also shown that stress can improve immune responses. A study reported by Striker et al. (1999) found that stress increases production of the hormone cortisol, which boosts the body's immunity. However, there is a negative dimension as well, since cortisol overload may lead to abdominal obesity, which increases the risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease and diabetes.

Stress may also help individuals solve problems. Exposure to moderate stress can lead a person to view a situation differently, enabling them to resolve conflicts or difficulties. Moderate anxiety has been shown to aid decision-making by directing individuals toward more considered choices.