Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War: Impact on Ancient Greece

Introduction: The Glory and Vulnerability of Ancient Greece

"Within seven centuries, [the ancient Greeks] invented for itself epic, elegy, lyric, tragedy, novel, democratic government, political and economic science, history, geography, philosophy, physics and biology; and made revolutionary advances in architecture, sculpture, painting, music, oratory, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, anatomy, engineering, law and war… A stupendous feat for whose most brilliant state Attica was the size of Hertfordshire, with a free population (including children) of perhaps 160,000." — F.J. Lucas

There is little question that ancient Greek civilization impacted the political, social, and philosophical landscape of the planet in a way that rivals any other in history. Indeed, the history and legacy of ancient Greek life and thinking are perhaps some of the greatest wonders of the world yet to endure. However, it is worth noting that even for so great a civilization, the impact of war can be irrevocably damaging. In the case of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, it was disastrous. This is even more striking when one considers the strident discipline and immense strength of the "war culture" of Sparta (Spielvogel, 60) and its failure to carry supposedly superior principles of democracy into its future.

Despite all of the strength of the Greek empire and society, Greece was unable to recover from the aftermath of a war driven by hubris combined with principle.

When most people think of the wonders of ancient Greece, they think of the period around 500 BC, wherein "Classical Greece" reigned at the recognized height of civilization. By all accounts, few periods rivaled this time when, under the great Pericles, the glories of contemporary democracy first emerged (62). However, few people imagine that the beginnings of the empire's fall also began during this same period — and that war, ironically in the very same region that remains a focal point of the world stage, would ring a death knell echoing throughout history.

The Persian Wars: Freedom Versus Tyranny

During the same period that Greek philosophy and early notions of democracy flourished, the rumblings of war began between the Greek and Persian empires. As the Greek empire expanded and grew in the Mediterranean region, another great civilization — the immense Persian Empire — also grew. Ironically, then as now, there brewed a kind of "clash" between the ideological watchword of "freedom" and tyranny.

Whereas the Greeks considered themselves unrivaled in their conception of free life, the Persian Empire was ruled according to the more traditional model of absolute monarchy. Although it is doubtful that this fact alone could account for the beginning of tensions between the two empires — a more conventional contest of power, influence, and resources is more probable — it was at least rhetorically significant. This is apparent in the words of the famous Greek playwright Aeschylus, who composed a play in which a Persian queen asks, "Who commands them? Who is shepherd of their host?" and the chorus responds, "They are slaves to none, nor are they subject" (63). As Spielvogel writes in "The Civilization of the Greeks," this indicates that "at least some Greeks saw the struggle with the Persians as a contest between freedom and slavery" (63).

Occupation is hard to bear for any civilization, and the Greeks — who in some areas languished under Persian control — were no different. Given their very different cultures, as well as their philosophical and ideological perspectives, the Greeks were ripe for a war of liberation against the Persians. However, in deciding to revolt, beginning with the Ionian cities in 499 BC, they set in motion a chain of events that would lead to full-scale Persian invasion and an all-out war.

Beginning with the historic Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the Greeks began to feel a swelling of pride in their ability to prevail over so great an empire — one that, by some accounts, numbered over 150,000 troops (65). The Persians had been a thorn in their side for some time, and the ability to resist and prevail over such an immense force gave the Greeks strength and belief in their own might and superiority.

After the final Greek triumph over the Persians, Greek civilization entered the so-called "imperial period," during which the Athenian Empire would hold sway. It was during this time that the tremendous influence of the Persian Wars upon the structure of the empire became clearly visible. The period was characterized not only by a push for overall Greek unity under the umbrella of the Delian League, but also by a growing emphasis on democratic principles that extended beyond Sparta (66).

Athenian Imperialism and the Road to the Peloponnesian War

At this point, the ideology of Athens began to shape foreign policy as well. Great strides were made in the development of democracy at home — including the Council of Five Hundred, the establishment of a system of magistrates, and the introduction of public votes (67) — yet Athens simultaneously pursued a policy of imperialism abroad (67).

One of the common problems that imperialistic powers encounter is both overestimating their ability to control and expand over large areas and underestimating the resistance of the peoples they wish to control. Such was the case when Athens sought to bring the people of Sparta under its umbrella of power on the Greek mainland. The Athenians soon found themselves in a kind of quagmire of skirmishes with the Spartans and their allies, who equally resisted Athenian rule (68). Although the Athenians were emboldened by their success against the Persians, they had failed to estimate the resistance of the mainland Greeks, and were forced after the First Peloponnesian War — the sum of these skirmishes — to develop a "each to its own" truce between their maritime empire and the Spartan mainland empire (68).

Although the truce held for a time, Athens continued to grow in power in a way that increasingly threatened the security of Sparta (69). The dynamics of this rivalry would soon explode into the greatest conflict the Greek world had ever seen.

Conclusion: Lessons from the Fall of Classical Greece

Under the control of the Thirty, ancient Greece as a bastion of freedom and democracy fell, and the greatness of the Greek empire steadily faded from existence. Although it certainly left a mark upon the world — particularly in its philosophical and political example — an example that has led to notable democratic systems today, one can see that another lesson can also be learned. The folly of hubris is rightly displayed in Greek literature as well as in Greek history. Perhaps the danger of impulsive and pride-driven war will be one of the final lessons that ancient Greece has to bestow. One can only wait and see.

Wikipedia. Staff. "Peloponnesian War." Web site. Retrieved July 5, 2005. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnesian_War

Sherman, D. Western Civilization, 6th ed.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization, 6th ed. Wadsworth, New York. 2001.